Tag: Maladaptive Schema

An Overview of Externalising Disorders

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Introduction

Externalising disorders are mental disorders characterised by externalising behaviours, maladaptive behaviours directed toward an individual’s environment, which cause impairment or interference in life functioning. In contrast to individuals with internalising disorders who internalise (keep inside) their maladaptive emotions and cognitions, such feelings and thoughts are externalised (manifested outside) in behaviour in individuals with externalising disorders. Externalising disorders are often specifically referred to as disruptive behaviour disorders (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder) or conduct problems which occur in childhood. Externalising disorders, however, are also manifested in adulthood. For example, alcohol- and substance-related disorders and antisocial personality disorder are adult externalising disorders. Externalising psychopathology is associated with antisocial behaviour, which is different from and often confused for asociality.

Brief History

The classification for several externalising disorders changed from DSM-IV to DSM-5. ADHD, ODD, and CD were previously classified in the Attention-deficit and Disruptive Behaviour Disorders section in DSM-IV. Pyromania, kleptomania, and IED were previously classified in the Impulse-Control Disorders Not Otherwise Specified Section of DSM-IV. ADHD is now categorised in the Neurodevelopmental Disorders section in DSM-5. ODD, CD, pyromania, kleptomania, and IED are now categorised in the new Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders chapter of DSM-5. Overall, there were many changes made to the DSM from the transition of DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5, which was somewhat controversial.

Signs and Symptoms

Externalising disorders often involve emotion dysregulation problems and impulsivity that are manifested as antisocial behaviour and aggression in opposition to authority, societal norms, and often violate the rights of others. Some examples of externalising disorder symptoms include, often losing one’s temper, excessive verbal aggression, physical aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, theft, and deliberate fire setting. As with all DSM-5 mental disorders, an individual must have functional impairment in at least one domain (e.g. academic, occupational, social relationships, or family functioning) in order to meet diagnostic criteria for an externalising disorder. Moreover, an individual’s symptoms should be atypical for their cultural and environmental context and physical medical conditions should be ruled out before an externalising disorder diagnosis is considered. Diagnoses must be made by qualified mental health professionals. DSM-5 classifications of externalising disorders are listed herein, however, ICD-10 can also be used to classify externalising disorders. More specific criteria and examples of symptoms for various externalising disorders can be found in the DSM-5.

DSM-5 Classification

There are no specific criteria for “externalising behaviour” or “externalising disorders”. Thus, there is no clear classification of what constitutes an externalizing disorder in the DSM-5. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), pyromania, kleptomania, intermittent explosive disorder (IED), and substance-related disorders are frequently referred to as externalising disorders. Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder has also been posited as an externalising disorder, but little research has examined and validated it to date given its recent addition to the DSM-5, and thus, it is not included further herein.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Inattention ADHD symptoms include: “often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities,” “often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities,” “often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly,” “often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace,” “often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities,” “often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort,” “often loses things necessary for tasks or activities,” “is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli (for older adolescents and adults, may include unrelated thoughts),” and “is often forgetful in daily activities.”

Hyperactivity and impulsivity ADHD symptoms include: “often fidgets with or taps hands or feet or squirms in seat,” “often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected,” “often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate,” “is often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly,” “is often “on the go,” acting as if “driven by a motor,” “often talks excessively,” “often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed,” “often has difficulty waiting his or her turn,” and “often interrupts or intrudes on others.”

In order to meet criteria for an ADHD diagnosis, an individual must have at least six symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity, have an onset of several symptoms prior to age 12 years, have symptoms present in at least two settings, have functional impairment, and have symptoms that are not better explained by another mental disorder.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

ODD symptoms include: “often loses temper,” “is often touchy or easily annoyed,” “is often angry and resentful,” “often argues with authority figures, or for children and adolescents, with adults,” “often actively defies or refuses to comply with requests from authority figures or with rules,” “often deliberately annoys others,” and “often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior.” In order to receive an ODD diagnosis, individuals must have at least four symptoms from above for at least six months (most days for youth younger than five years) with at least one individual who is not a sibling, which causes impairment in at least one setting. Rule outs for a diagnosis include symptoms occurring concurrently during an episode of another disorder.

Conduct Disorder

CD symptoms include “often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others,” “often initiates physical fights,” “has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others,” “has been physically cruel to people,” “has been physically cruel to animals,” “has stolen while confronting a victim,” “has forced someone into sexual activity,” “has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage,” “has deliberately destroyed others’ property (other than by fire setting),” “has broken into someone else’s house, building, or car,” “often lies to obtain goods or favors or to avoid obligations,” “has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim,” “often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before age 13 years,” “has run away from home overnight at least twice while living in the parental or parental surrogate home, or once without returning for a lengthy period,” and “is often truant from school, beginning before age 13 years.” In order to receive a CD diagnosis, individuals must have three of these symptoms for at least one year, at least two symptoms for at least six months, be impaired in at least one setting, and not have an antisocial personality disorder diagnosis if 18 years or older

Antisocial Personality Disorder

ASPD symptoms include: “failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors, as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest,” “deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure,” “impulsivity or failure to plan ahead,” “irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults,” “reckless disregard for safety of self or others,” “consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations,” and “lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another.” In order to meet diagnostic criteria for ASPD, an individual must have “a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, occurring since age 15 years,” three or more of the above symptoms, be at least age 18 years, have a conduct disorder onset before age 15 years, and not have antisocial behaviour exclusively during schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.

Pyromania

Pyromania symptoms include: “deliberate and purposeful fire setting on more than one occasion,” “tension or affective arousal before the act,” “fascination with, interest in, curiosity about, or attraction to fire and its situational contexts,” and “pleasure, gratification, or relief when setting fires or when witnessing or participating in their aftermath.” In order to receive a pyromania diagnosis, “the fire setting is not done for monetary gain, as an expression of sociopolitical ideology, to conceal criminal activity, to express anger or vengeance, to improve one’s living circumstances, in response to a delusion or hallucination, or as a result of impaired judgment.” A conduct disorder diagnosis, manic episode, or antisocial personality disorder diagnosis must not better account for the fire setting in order to receive a pyromania diagnosis.

Kleptomania

Kleptomania symptoms include: “recurrent failure to resist impulses to steal objects that are not needed for personal use or for their monetary value,” “increasing sense of tension immediately before committing the theft,” and “pleasure, gratification, or relief at the time of committing the theft.” In order to receive a kleptomania diagnosis, “the stealing is not committed to express anger or vengeance and is not in response to a delusion or a hallucination.” Additionally, in order to receive a diagnosis, “the stealing is not better explained by conduct disorder, a manic episode, or antisocial personality disorder.”

Intermittent Explosive Disorder

IED symptoms include:

“recurrent behavioral outbursts representing a failure to control aggressive impulses as manifested by either of the following: 1) Verbal aggression (e.g., temper tantrums, tirades, verbal arguments or fights) or physical aggression toward property, animals, or other individuals, occurring twice weekly, on average, for a period of 3 months. The physical aggression does not result in damage or destruction of property and does not result in physical injury to animals or other individuals. 2) Three behavioral outbursts involving damage or destruction of property and/or physical assault involving physical injury against animals or other individuals occurring within a 12-month period.”

In order to receive an IED diagnosis, “the magnitude of aggressiveness expressed during the recurrent outbursts is grossly out of proportion to the provocation or to any precipitating psychosocial stressors,” “the recurrent aggressive outbursts are not premeditated” and “are not committed to achieve some tangible objective.” Additionally, to receive an IED diagnosis, an individual must be six years or older (chronologically or developmentally), have functional impairment, and not have symptoms better explained by another mental disorder, medical condition, or substance.

Substance Use Disorders

According to the DSM-5, “the essential feature of a substance use disorder is a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the substance despite significant substance-related problems.” Given that at least 10 separate classes of drugs are covered in the DSM-5 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders section, it is outside the scope of this article. Refer to the DSM-5 for more information on signs and symptoms.

Comorbidity

Externalising disorders are frequently comorbid or co-occurring with other disorders. Individuals who have the co-occurrence of more than one externalising disorder have homotypic comorbidity, whereas individuals who have co-occurring externalising and internalising disorders have heterotypic comorbidity. It is not uncommon for children with early externalising problems to develop both internalising and further externalising problems across the lifespan. Additionally, the complex interplay between externalising and internalising symptoms across development could explain the association between these problems and other risk behaviours, that typically initiate in adolescence (such as antisocial behaviours and substance use).

Stigma

Consistent with many mental disorders, individuals with externalising disorders are subject to significant implicit and explicit forms of stigma. Because externalising behaviours are salient and difficult to conceal, individuals with externalising disorders may be more susceptible to stigmatisation relative to individuals with other disorders. Parents of youth with childhood mental disorders, such as ADHD and ODD, are frequently stigmatised when parenting practices are strongly implicated in the aetiology or cause of the disorder. Educational and policy-related initiatives have been proposed as potential mechanisms to reduce stigmatisation of mental disorders.

Psychopathic Traits

Individuals with psychopathic traits, including callous-unemotional (CU) traits, represent a phenomenologically and etiologically distinct group with severe externalising problems. Psychopathic traits have been measured in children as young as two-years-old, are moderately stable, are heritable, and associated with atypical affective, cognitive, personality, and social characteristics. Individuals with psychopathic traits are at risk for poor response to treatment, however, some data suggest that parent management training interventions for youth with psychopathic traits early in development may have promise.

Developmental Course

ADHD often precedes the onset of ODD, and approximately half of children with ADHD, combined type also have ODD. ODD is a risk factor for CD and frequently precedes the onset of CD symptoms. Children with an early onset of CD symptoms, with at least one symptom before age 10 years, are at risk for more severe and persistent antisocial behaviour continuing into adulthood. Youth with early-onset conduct problems are particularly at risk for ASPD (note that an onset of CD prior to age 15 is part of the diagnostic criteria for ASPD), whereas CD is typically limited to adolescence when youth’s CD symptoms begin during adolescence.

Treatment

Despite recent initiatives to study psychopathology along dimensions of behaviour and neurobiological indices, which would help refine a clearer picture of the development and treatment of externalising disorders, the majority of research has examined specific mental disorders. Thus, best practices for many externalising disorders are disorder-specific. For example, substance use disorders themselves are very heterogeneous and their best-evidenced treatment typically includes cognitive behavioural therapy, motivational interviewing, and a substance disorder-specific detoxification or psychotropic medication treatment component. The best-evidenced treatment for childhood conduct and externalising problems more broadly, including youth with ADHD, ODD, and CD, is parent management training, a form of cognitive behavioural therapy. Additionally, individuals with ADHD, both youth and adults, are frequently treated with stimulant medications (or alternative psychotropic medications), especially if psychotherapy alone has not been effective in managing symptoms and impairment. Psychotherapy and medication interventions for individuals with severe, adult forms of antisocial behaviour, such as antisocial personality disorder, have been mostly ineffective. An individual’s comorbid psychopathology may also influences the course of treatment for an individual.

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What are Maladaptive Schemas?

Published on by Andrew Marshall3 Comments

Introduction

This is a list of maladaptive schemas, often called early maladaptive schemas, in schema therapy, a theory and method of psychotherapy.

An early maladaptive schema is a pervasive self-defeating or dysfunctional theme or pattern of memories, emotions, and physical sensations, developed during childhood or adolescence and elaborated throughout one’s lifetime, that often has the form of a belief about the self or the world.

Disconnection and Rejection

Abandonment/InstabilityThe belief system involving the sense that significant others will not be able to continue providing support, connection, strength, or protection because they are unstable, unpredictable, unreliable; because they will eventually die; or because they found someone better.
Mistrust/AbuseThe belief system involving the sense that others will intentionally hurt, abuse, humiliate, cheat, lie, manipulate, take advantage, or neglect.
Emotional DeprivationThe belief that one’s standard for emotional support will not be met by others.
Defectiveness/ShameThe belief that one is defective, bad, unwanted, inferior, or unworthy. This includes the fear of insecurities being exposed to significant others, accompanied by hypersensitivity to criticism, rejection, and blame.
Social Isolation/AlienationThe belief that one is isolated from other people; the feeling of not being a part of any groups.

Impaired Autonomy and Performance

Dependence/IncompetenceThe belief that one cannot handle daily responsibilities without the help of others.
Vulnerability to Harm or IllnessThe belief system involving the exaggeration of fear that catastrophe will strike at any time; the catastrophes may be medical, emotional, or external.
Enmeshment/Underdeveloped SelfThe belief system that one must please others at the expense of self or social development.
FailureThe belief that one will fail in everything.

Impaired Limits

Entitlement/GrandiosityThe belief that one is superior to others, which allows one to have special rights and privileges.
Insufficient Self-Control/Self-DisciplineThe conflict between life goals and low self control, perhaps seeking comfort instead of trying to perform daily responsibilities.

Other-Directedness

SubjugationThe belief that one should surrender control to others, suppressing desires in order to avoid anger, retaliation, or abandonment.
Self-SacrificeThe belief system involving excessive selflessness, focused on meeting the needs of others at the expense of one’s own desire.
Approval-Seeking/Recognition-SeekingThe desire to gain approval, recognition, or attention from other people at the expense of developing a secure and true sense of self.

Over-Vigilance/Inhibition

Negativity/PessimismThe belief system involving the overemphasis on the negative aspects of life including pain, death, loss, disappointment, conflict, guilt, resentment, unsolved problems, potential mistakes, betrayal, or things that could go wrong; neglecting positive aspects of life.
Overcontrol/Emotional InhibitionThe belief system involving the inhibition of actions, feelings, or communications to avoid negative consequences.
Unrelenting Standards/HypercriticalnessThe belief that one must strive to meet very high personal standards, usually to avoid criticism, leading to hypercriticalness toward self and/or others.
PunitivenessThe belief that people should face consequences for their mistakes.

What is Schema Therapy?

Published on by Andrew Marshall2 Comments

Introduction

Schema therapy was developed by Jeffrey E. Young for use in treatment of personality disorders and chronic DSM Axis I disorders, such as when patients fail to respond or relapse after having been through other therapies (for example, traditional cognitive behavioural therapy, CBT). Schema therapy is an integrative psychotherapy combining theory and techniques from previously existing therapies, including CBT, psychoanalytic object relations theory, attachment theory, and Gestalt therapy.

Concepts

Four main theoretical concepts in schema therapy are early maladaptive schemas (or simply schemas), coping styles, modes, and basic emotional needs:

  1. In cognitive psychology, a schema is an organised pattern of thought and behaviour. It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information. In schema therapy, a schema specifically refers to an early maladaptive schema, defined as a pervasive self-defeating or dysfunctional theme or pattern of memories, emotions, and physical sensations, developed during childhood or adolescence and elaborated throughout one’s lifetime. Often they have the form of a belief about the self or the world. For instance, a person with an Abandonment schema could be hypersensitive (have an “emotional button” or “trigger”) about their perceived value to others, which in turn could make them feel sad and panicky in their interpersonal relationships.
  2. Coping styles are a person’s behavioural responses to schemas. There are three potential coping styles. In “avoidance” the person tries to avoid situations that activate the schema. In “surrender” the person gives into the schema, doesn’t try to fight against it, and changes their behaviour in expectation that the feared outcome is inevitable. In “counterattack”, also called “overcompensation”, the person puts extra work into not allowing the schema’s feared outcome to happen. These maladaptive coping styles (overcompensation, avoidance, or surrender) very often wind up reinforcing the schemas. Continuing the Abandonment example: having imagined a threat of abandonment in a relationship and feeling sad and panicky, a person using an avoidance coping style might then behave in ways to limit the closeness in the relationship to try to protect themselves from being abandoned. The resulting loneliness or even actual loss of the relationship could easily reinforce the person’s Abandonment schema. Another example can be given for the Defectiveness schema: A person using an avoidance coping style might avoid situations that make them feel defective, or might try to numb the feeling with addictions or distractions. A person using a surrender coping style might tolerate unfair criticism without defending themselves. A person using the counterattack/overcompensation coping style might put extra effort into being superhuman.
  3. Modes are mind states that cluster schemas and coping styles into a temporary “way of being” that a person can shift into occasionally or more frequently. For example, a Vulnerable Child mode might be a state of mind encompassing schemas of Abandonment, Defectiveness, Mistrust/Abuse and a coping style of surrendering (to the schemas).
  4. If a patient’s basic emotional needs are not met in childhood, then schemas, coping styles, and modes can develop. Some basic needs that have been identified are: connection, mutuality, reciprocity, flow, and autonomy. For example, a child with unmet needs around connection – perhaps due to parental loss to death, divorce, or addiction – might develop an Abandonment schema.

The goal of schema therapy is to help patients meet their basic emotional needs by helping the patient learn how to:

  • Heal schemas by diminishing the intensity of emotional memories comprising the schema and the intensity of bodily sensations, and by changing the cognitive patterns connected to the schema; and
  • Replace maladaptive coping styles and responses with adaptive patterns of behaviour.

Techniques used in schema therapy including limited reparenting and Gestalt therapy psychodrama techniques such as imagery re-scripting and empty chair dialogues (Refer to techniques in schema therapy, below).

There is a growing literature of outcome studies on schema therapy, where schema therapy has shown impressive results (Refer to outcome studies on schema therapy, below).

Early Maladaptive Schemas

Refer to List of Maladaptive Schemas.

Early maladaptive schemas are self-defeating emotional and cognitive patterns established from childhood and repeated throughout life. They may be made up of emotional memories of past hurt, tragedy, fear, abuse, neglect, unmet safety needs, abandonment, or lack of normal human affection in general. Early maladaptive schemas can also include bodily sensations associated with such emotional memories. Early maladaptive schemas can have different levels of severity and pervasiveness: the more severe the schema, the more intense the negative emotion when the schema is triggered and the longer it lasts; the more pervasive the schema, the greater the number of situations that trigger it.

Schema Domains

Schema domains are five broad categories of unmet needs into which are grouped 18 early maladaptive schemas identified by Young, Klosko & Weishaar (2003):

  • Disconnection/Rejection includes 5 schemas:
    • Abandonment/Instability.
    • Mistrust/Abuse.
    • Emotional Deprivation.
    • Defectiveness/Shame.
    • Social Isolation/Alienation.
  • Impaired Autonomy and/or Performance includes 4 schemas:
    • Dependence/Incompetence.
    • Vulnerability to Harm or Illness.
    • Enmeshment/Undeveloped Self.
    • Failure.
  • Impaired Limits includes 2 schemas:
    • Entitlement/Grandiosity.
    • Insufficient Self-Control and/or Self-Discipline.
  • Other-Directedness includes 3 schemas:
    • Subjugation.
    • Self-Sacrifice.
    • Approval-Seeking/Recognition-Seeking.
  • Over-vigilance/Inhibition includes 4 schemas:
    • Negativity/Pessimism.
    • Emotional Inhibition.
    • Unrelenting Standards/Hypercriticalness.
    • Punitiveness.

Schema Modes

Schema modes are momentary mind states which every human being experiences at one time or another. A schema mode consists of a cluster of schemas and coping styles. Life situations that a person finds disturbing or offensive, or arouse bad memories, are referred to as “triggers” that tend to activate schema modes. In psychologically healthy persons, schema modes are mild, flexible mind states that are easily pacified by the rest of their personality. In patients with personality disorders, schema modes are more severe, rigid mind states that may seem split off from the rest of their personality.

Identified Schema Modes

Young, Klosko & Weishaar (2003) identified 10 schema modes grouped into four categories. The four categories are: Child modes, Dysfunctional Coping modes, Dysfunctional Parent modes, and the Healthy Adult mode. The four Child modes are: Vulnerable Child, Angry Child, Impulsive/Undisciplined Child, and Happy Child. The three Dysfunctional Coping modes are: Compliant Surrenderer, Detached Protector, and Overcompensator. The two Dysfunctional Parent modes are: Punitive Parent and Demanding Parent.

Angry ChildThis is fuelled mainly by feelings of victimisation or bitterness, leading towards negativity, pessimism, jealousy, and rage. While experiencing this schema mode, a patient may have urges to yell, scream, throw/break things, or possibly even injure themselves or harm others. The Angry Child schema mode is enraged, anxious, frustrated, self-doubting, feels unsupported in ideas and vulnerable.
Impulsive ChildThis is the mode where anything goes. Behaviours of the Impulsive Child schema mode may include reckless driving, substance abuse, cutting oneself, suicidal thoughts, gambling, or fits of rage, such as punching a wall when “triggered” or laying blame of circumstantial difficulties upon innocent people. Unsafe sex, rash decisions to run away from a situation without resolution, tantrums perceived by peers as infantile, and so forth are a mere few of the behaviours which a patient in this schema mode might display. Impulsive Child is the rebellious and careless schema mode.
Detached ProtectorThis is based in escape. Patients in Detached Protector schema mode withdraw, dissociate, alienate, or hide in some way. This may be triggered by numerous stress factors or feelings of being overwhelmed. When a patient with insufficient skills is in a situation involving excessive demands, it can trigger a Detached Protector response mode. Stated simply, patients become numb in order to protect themselves from the harm or stress of what they fear is to come, or to protect themselves from fear of the unknown in general.
Abandoned ChildThis is the mode in which a patient may feel defective in some way, thrown aside, unloved, obviously alone, or may be in a “me against the world” mindset. The patient may feel as though peers, friends, family, and even the entire world have abandoned them. Behaviours of patients in Abandoned Child mode may include (but are not limited to) falling into major depression, pessimism, feeling unwanted, feeling unworthy of love, and perceiving personality traits as irredeemable flaws. Rarely, a patient’s self-perceived flaws may be intentionally withheld on the inside; when this occurs, instead of showing one’s true self, the patient may appear to others as “egotistical”, “attention-seeking”, selfish, distant, and may exhibit behaviours unlike their true nature. The patient might create a narcissistic alter-ego/persona in order to escape or hide the insecurity from others. Due to fear of rejection, of feeling disconnected from their true self and poor self-image, these patients, who truly desire companionship/affection, may instead end up pushing others away.
Punitive ParentThis is identified by beliefs of a patient that they should be harshly punished, perhaps due to feeling “defective”, or making a simple mistake. The patient may feel that they should be punished for even existing. Sadness, anger, impatience, and judgement are directed to the patient and from the patient. The Punitive Parent has great difficulty in forgiving themselves even under average circumstances in which anyone could fall short of their standards. The Punitive Parent does not wish to allow for human error or imperfection, thus punishment is what this mode seeks.
Healthy AdultThis is the mode that schema therapy aims to help a patient achieve as the long-lasting state of well-being. The Healthy Adult is comfortable making decisions, is a problem-solver, thinks before acting, is appropriately ambitious, sets limits and boundaries, nurtures self and others, forms healthy relationships, takes on all responsibility, sees things through, and enjoys/partakes in enjoyable adult activities and interests with boundaries enforced, takes care of their physical health, and values themselves. In this schema mode the patient focuses on the present day with hope and strives toward the best tomorrow possible. The Healthy Adult forgives the past, no longer sees themselves as a victim (but as a survivor), and expresses all emotions in ways which are healthy and cause no harm.

Techniques in Schema Therapy

Treatment plans in schema therapy generally encompass three basic classes of techniques: cognitive, experiential, and behavioural (in addition to the basic healing components of the therapeutic relationship). Cognitive strategies expand on standard CBT techniques such as listing pros and cons of a schema, testing the validity of a schema, or conducting a dialogue between the “schema side” and the “healthy side”. Experiential and emotion focused strategies expand on standard Gestalt therapy psychodrama and imagery techniques. Behavioural pattern-breaking strategies expand on standard behaviour therapy techniques, such as role playing an interaction and then assigning the interaction as homework. One of the most central techniques in schema therapy is the use of the therapeutic relationship, specifically through a process called “limited reparenting”.

Specific techniques often used in schema therapy include flash cards with important therapeutic messages, created in session and used by the patient between sessions, and the schema diary – a template or workbook that is filled out by the patient between sessions and that records the patient’s progress in relation to all the theoretical concepts in schema therapy.

Schema Therapy and Psychoanalysis

From an integrative psychotherapy perspective, limited reparenting and the experiential techniques, particularly around changing modes, could be seen as actively changing what psychoanalysis has described as object relations. Historically, mainstream psychoanalysis tended to reject active techniques – such as Fritz Perls’ Gestalt therapy work or Franz Alexander’s “corrective emotional experience” – but contemporary relational psychoanalysis (led by analysts such as Lewis Aron, and building on the ideas of earlier unorthodox analysts such as Sándor Ferenczi) is more open to active techniques. It is notable that in a head to head comparison of a psychoanalytic object relations treatment (Otto F. Kernberg’s transference focused psychotherapy) and schema therapy, the latter has been demonstrated to be more effective in treating Borderline Personality Disorder.

Outcome Studies on Schema Therapy

Schema Therapy vs Transference Focused Psychotherapy Outcomes

Dutch investigators, including Josephine Giesen-Bloo and Arnoud Arntz (the project leader), compared schema therapy (also known as schema focused therapy or SFT) with transference focused psychotherapy (TFP) in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. 86 patients were recruited from four mental health institutes in the Netherlands. Patients in the study received two sessions per week of SFT or TFP for three years. After three years, full recovery was achieved in 45% of the patients in the SFT condition, and in 24% of those receiving TFP. One year later, the percentage fully recovered increased to 52% in the SFT condition and 29% in the TFP condition, with 70% of the patients in the SFT group achieving “clinically significant and relevant improvement”. Moreover, the dropout rate was only 27% for SFT, compared with 50% for TFP.

Patients began to feel and function significantly better after the first year, with improvement occurring more rapidly in the SFT group. There was continuing improvement in subsequent years. Thus investigators concluded that both treatments had positive effects, with schema therapy clearly more successful.

Less Intensive Outpatient, Individual Schema Therapy

Dutch investigators, including Marjon Nadort and Arnoud Arntz, assessed the effectiveness of schema therapy in the treatment of borderline personality disorder when utilised in regular mental health care settings. A total of 62 patients were treated in eight mental health centres located in the Netherlands. The treatment was less intensive along a number of dimensions including a shift from twice weekly to once weekly sessions during the second year. Despite this, there was no lessening of effectiveness with recovery rates that were at least as high and similarly low dropout rates.

Pilot Study of Group Schema Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder

Investigators Joan Farrell, Ida Shaw and Michael Webber at the Indiana University School of Medicine Centre for BPD Treatment & Research tested the effectiveness of adding an eight-month, 30-session schema therapy group to treatment-as-usual (TAU) for borderline personality disorder (BPD) with 32 patients. The dropout rate was 0% for those patients who received group schema therapy in addition to TAU and 25% for those who received TAU alone. At the end of treatment, 94% of the patients who received group schema therapy in addition to TAU compared to 16% of the patients receiving TAU alone no longer met BPD diagnostic criteria. The schema therapy group treatment led to significant reductions in symptoms and global improvement in functioning. The large positive treatment effects found in the group schema therapy study suggest that the group modality may augment or catalyse the active ingredients of the treatment for BPD patients. As of 2014, a collaborative randomised controlled trial is under way at 14 sites in six countries to further explore this interaction between groups and schema therapy.