Tag: Bipolar Disorder

What is Carbamazepine?

Published on by Andrew Marshall26 Comments

Introduction

Carbamazepine (CBZ), sold under the trade name Tegretol among others, is an anticonvulsant medication used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and neuropathic pain.

It is used as an adjunctive treatment in schizophrenia along with other medications and as a second-line agent in bipolar disorder. Carbamazepine appears to work as well as phenytoin and valproate for focal and generalised seizures. It is not effective for absence or myoclonic seizures.

Common side effects include nausea and drowsiness. Serious side effects may include skin rashes, decreased bone marrow function, suicidal thoughts, or confusion. It should not be used in those with a history of bone marrow problems. Use during pregnancy may cause harm to the baby; however, stopping the medication in pregnant women with seizures is not recommended. Its use during breastfeeding is not recommended. Care should be taken in those with either kidney or liver problems.

Carbamazepine was discovered in 1953 by Swiss chemist Walter Schindler. It was first marketed in 1962. It is available as a generic medication. It is on the World Health Organisation’s List of Essential Medicines. In 2018, it was the 204th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2 million prescriptions. The newer but structurally related drugs, Oxcarbazepine and eslicarbazepine acetate, both show similar interactions, adverse events, and mechanism of action profiles.

Brief History

Carbamazepine was discovered by chemist Walter Schindler at J.R. Geigy AG (now part of Novartis) in Basel, Switzerland, in 1953. It was first marketed as a drug to treat epilepsy in Switzerland in 1963 under the brand name “Tegretol”; its use for trigeminal neuralgia (formerly known as tic douloureux) was introduced at the same time. It has been used as an anticonvulsant and antiepileptic in the UK since 1965, and has been approved in the US since 1968.

In 1971, Drs. Takezaki and Hanaoka first used carbamazepine to control mania in patients refractory to antipsychotics (lithium was not available in Japan at that time). Dr. Okuma, working independently, did the same thing with success. As they were also epileptologists, they had some familiarity with the anti-aggression effects of this drug. Carbamazepine was studied for bipolar disorder throughout the 1970s.

Medical Uses

Carbamazepine is typically used for the treatment of seizure disorders and neuropathic pain. It is used off-label as a second-line treatment for bipolar disorder and in combination with an antipsychotic in some cases of schizophrenia when treatment with a conventional antipsychotic alone has failed. However, evidence does not support this usage. It is not effective for absence seizures or myoclonic seizures. Although carbamazepine may have a similar effectiveness (people continue on medication) and efficacy (medicine reduces seizure recurrence and improves remission) when compared to phenytoin and valproate the choice of medications should be considered for each person individually as further research is needed to determine which medication is most helpful for people with newly-onset seizures.

In the United States, the FDA-approved medical uses are epilepsy (including partial seizures, generalised tonic-clonic seizures and mixed seizures), trigeminal neuralgia, and manic and mixed episodes of bipolar I disorder.

The drug is also claimed to be effective for ADHD.

As of 2014, a controlled release formulation was available for which there is tentative evidence showing fewer side effects and unclear evidence with regard to whether there is a difference in efficacy.

Adverse Effects

In the US, the label for carbamazepine contains warnings concerning:

  • Effects on the body’s production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets: rarely, there are major effects of aplastic anaemia and agranulocytosis reported and more commonly, there are minor changes such as decreased white blood cell or platelet counts, but these do not progress to more serious problems.
  • Increased risks of suicide.
  • Increased risks of hyponatremia and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).
  • Risk of seizures, if the person stops taking the drug abruptly.
  • Risks to the foetus in women who are pregnant, specifically congenital malformations like spina bifida, and developmental disorders.

Common adverse effects may include drowsiness, dizziness, headaches and migraines, motor coordination impairment, nausea, vomiting, and/or constipation. Alcohol use while taking carbamazepine may lead to enhanced depression of the central nervous system.[2] Less common side effects may include increased risk of seizures in people with mixed seizure disorders,[21] abnormal heart rhythms, blurry or double vision.[2] Also, rare case reports of an auditory side effect have been made, whereby patients perceive sounds about a semitone lower than previously; this unusual side effect is usually not noticed by most people, and disappears after the person stops taking carbamazepine.

Pharmacogenetics

Serious skin reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis due to carbamazepine therapy are more common in people with a particular human leukocyte antigen allele, HLA-B1502. Odds ratios for the development of Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis (SJS/TEN) in people who carry the allele can be in the double, triple or even quadruple digits, depending on the population studied. HLA-B1502 occurs almost exclusively in people with ancestry across broad areas of Asia, but has a very low or absent frequency in European, Japanese, Korean and African populations. However, the HLA-A31:01 allele has been shown to be a strong predictor of both mild and severe adverse reactions, such as the DRESS form of severe cutaneous reactions, to carbamazepine among Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Europeans. It is suggested that carbamazepine acts as a potent antigen that binds to the antigen-presenting area of HLA-B1502 alike, triggering an everlasting activation signal on immature CD8-T cells, thus resulting in widespread cytotoxic reactions like SJS/TEN.

Interactions

Carbamazepine has a potential for drug interactions. Drugs that decrease breaking down of carbamazepine or otherwise increase its levels include erythromycin, cimetidine, propoxyphene, and calcium channel blockers. Grapefruit juice raises the bioavailability of carbamazepine by inhibiting the enzyme CYP3A4 in the gut wall and in the liver. Lower levels of carbamazepine are seen when administrated with phenobarbital, phenytoin, or primidone, which can result in breakthrough seizure activity.

Valproic acid and valnoctamide both inhibit microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH), the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of the active metabolite carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide into inactive metabolites. By inhibiting mEH, valproic acid and valnoctamide cause a build-up of the active metabolite, prolonging the effects of carbamazepine and delaying its excretion.

Carbamazepine, as an inducer of cytochrome P450 enzymes, may increase clearance of many drugs, decreasing their concentration in the blood to subtherapeutic levels and reducing their desired effects. Drugs that are more rapidly metabolized with carbamazepine include warfarin, lamotrigine, phenytoin, theophylline, valproic acid, many benzodiazepines, and methadone. Carbamazepine also increases the metabolism of the hormones in birth control pills and can reduce their effectiveness, potentially leading to unexpected pregnancies.

Pharmacology

Mechanism of Action

Carbamazepine is a sodium channel blocker. It binds preferentially to voltage-gated sodium channels in their inactive conformation, which prevents repetitive and sustained firing of an action potential. Carbamazepine has effects on serotonin systems but the relevance to its anti-seizure effects is uncertain. There is evidence that it is a serotonin releasing agent and possibly even a serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

Pharmacokinetics

Carbamazepine is relatively slowly but practically completely absorbed after administration by mouth. Highest concentrations in the blood plasma are reached after 4 to 24 hours depending on the dosage form. Slow release tablets result in about 15% lower absorption and 25% lower peak plasma concentrations than ordinary tablets, as well as in less fluctuation of the concentration, but not in significantly lower minimum concentrations.

20 to 30% of the substance are circulating in form of carbamazepine itself, the rest are metabolites. 70 to 80% are bound to plasma proteins. Concentrations in the breast milk are 25 to 60% of those in the blood plasma.

Carbamazepine itself is not pharmacologically active. It is activated, mainly by CYP3A4, to carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide, which is solely responsible for the drug’s anticonvulsant effects. The epoxide is then inactivated by microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH) to carbamazepine-trans-10,11-diol and further to its glucuronides. Other metabolites include various hydroxyl derivatives and carbamazepine-N-glucuronide.

The plasma half-life is about 35 to 40 hours when carbamazepine is given as single dose, but it is a strong inducer of liver enzymes, and the plasma half-life shortens to about 12 to 17 hours when it is given repeatedly. The half-life can be further shortened to 9-10 hours by other enzyme inducers such as phenytoin or phenobarbital. About 70% are excreted via the urine, almost exclusively in form of its metabolites, and 30% via the faeces.

Society and Culture

Environmental Impact

Carbamazepine and its (bio-)transformation products have been detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent  and in streams receiving treated wastewater. Field and laboratory studies have been conducted to understand the accumulation of carbamazepine in food plants grown in soil treated with sludge, which vary with respect to the concentrations of carbamazepine present in sludge and in the concentrations of sludge in the soil. Taking into account only studies that used concentrations commonly found in the environment, a 2014 review concluded that “the accumulation of carbamazepine into plants grown in soil amended with biosolids poses a de minimis risk to human health according to the approach.” 

Brand Names

Carbamazepine is available worldwide under many brand names including Tegretol.

What is Bipolar Disorder Not Otherwise Specified?

Published on by Andrew Marshall1 Comment

Introduction

Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified (BD-NOS) is a diagnosis for bipolar disorder (BD) when it does not fall within the other established sub-types.

Bipolar disorder NOS is sometimes referred to as subthreshold bipolar disorder.

Classification

BD-NOS is a mood disorder and one of three subtypes on the bipolar spectrum, which also includes bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder. BD-NOS was a classification in the DSM-IV and has since been changed to Bipolar “Other Specified” and “Unspecified” in the 2013 released DSM-5.

Diagnosis

Bipolar disorder is difficult to diagnose. If a person displays some symptoms of bipolar disorder but not others, the clinician may diagnose bipolar NOS. The diagnosis of bipolar NOS is indicated when there is a rapid change (days) between manic and depressive symptoms and can also include recurring episodes of hypomania. Bipolar NOS may be diagnosed when it is difficult to tell whether bipolar is the primary disorder due to another general medical condition, such as a substance use disorder.

Treatment

Individual approaches to treatment are recommended, usually involving a combination of mood stabilisers and atypical antipsychotics. Psychotherapy may be beneficial and should be started early.

Epidemiology

The prevalence of BD-NOS is approximately 1.4%.

What is Olanzapine?

Published on by Andrew Marshall26 Comments

Introduction

Olanzapine, sold under the trade name Zyprexa among others, is an atypical antipsychotic primarily used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

For schizophrenia, it can be used for both new-onset disease and long-term maintenance. It is taken by mouth or by injection into a muscle.

Common side effects include weight gain, movement disorders, dizziness, feeling tired, constipation, and dry mouth. Other side effects include low blood pressure with standing, allergic reactions, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, high blood sugar, seizures, gynecomastia, erectile dysfunction, and tardive dyskinesia. In older people with dementia, its use increases the risk of death. Use in the later part of pregnancy may result in a movement disorder in the baby for some time after birth. Although how it works is not entirely clear, it blocks dopamine and serotonin receptors.

Brief History

Olanzapine was patented in 1971 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1996. It is available as a generic medication. In 2017, it was the 239th-most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than two million prescriptions. Lilly also markets olanzapine in a fixed-dose combination with fluoxetine as olanzapine/fluoxetine (Symbyax).

Chemical Synthesis

The preparation of olanzapine was first disclosed in a series of patents from Eli Lilly & Co. in the 1990s. In the final two steps, 5-methyl-2-[(2-nitrophenyl)amino]-3-thiophenecarbonitrile was reduced with stannous chloride in ethanol to give the substituted thienobenzodiazepine ring system, and this was treated with methylpiperazine in a mixture of dimethyl sulfoxide and toluene as solvent to produce the drug.

Medical Uses

Schizophrenia

The first-line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication, with olanzapine being one such medication. Olanzapine appears to be effective in reducing symptoms of schizophrenia, treating acute exacerbations, and treating early-onset schizophrenia. The usefulness of maintenance therapy, however, is difficult to determine, as more than half of people in trials quit before the 6-week completion date. Treatment with olanzapine (like clozapine) may result in increased weight gain and increased glucose and cholesterol levels when compared to most other second-generation antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia.

Comparison

The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the British Association for Psychopharmacology, and the World Federation of Societies for Biological Psychiatry suggest that little difference in effectiveness is seen between antipsychotics in prevention of relapse, and recommend that the specific choice of antipsychotic be chosen based on a person’s preference and the drug’s side-effect profile. The US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality concludes that olanzapine is not different from haloperidol in the treatment of positive symptoms and general psychopathology, or in overall assessment, but that it is superior for the treatment of negative and depressive symptoms. It has a lower risk of causing movement disorders than typical antipsychotics.

In a 2013 comparison of fifteen antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia, olanzapine was ranked third in efficacy. It was 5% more effective than risperidone (fourth), 24-27% more effective than haloperidol, quetiapine, and aripiprazole, and 33% less effective than clozapine (first). A 2013 review of first-episode schizophrenia concluded that olanzapine is superior to haloperidol in providing a lower discontinuation rate, and in short-term symptom reduction, response rate, negative symptoms, depression, cognitive function, discontinuation due to poor efficacy, and long-term relapse, but not in positive symptoms or on the clinical global impressions (CGI) score. In contrast, pooled second-generation antipsychotics showed superiority to first-generation antipsychotics only against the discontinuation, negative symptoms (with a much larger effect seen among industry- compared to government-sponsored studies), and cognition scores. Olanzapine caused less extrapyramidal side effects and less akathisia, but caused significantly more weight gain, serum cholesterol increase, and triglyceride increase than haloperidol.

A 2012 review concluded that among ten atypical antipsychotics, only clozapine, olanzapine, and risperidone were better than first-generation antipsychotics. A 2011 review concluded that neither first- nor second-generation antipsychotics produce clinically meaningful changes in CGI scores, but found that olanzapine and amisulpride produce larger effects on the PANSS and BPRS batteries than five other second-generation antipsychotics or pooled first-generation antipsychotics. A 2010 Cochrane systematic review found that olanzapine may have a slight advantage in effectiveness when compared to aripiprazole, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone. No differences in effectiveness were detected when comparing olanzapine to amisulpride and clozapine. A 2014 meta-analysis of nine published trials having minimum duration six months and median duration 52 weeks concluded that olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone had better effects on cognitive function than amisulpride and haloperidol.

Bipolar Disorder

Olanzapine is recommended by NICE as a first-line therapy for the treatment of acute mania in bipolar disorder. Other recommended first-line treatments are haloperidol, quetiapine, and risperidone. It is recommended in combination with fluoxetine as a first-line therapy for acute bipolar depression, and as a second-line treatment by itself for the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder.

The Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments recommends olanzapine as a first-line maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and the combination of olanzapine with fluoxetine as second-line treatment for bipolar depression.

A review on the efficacy of olanzapine as maintenance therapy in patients with bipolar disorder was published by Dando & Tohen in 2006. A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that olanzapine with fluoxetine was the most effective among nine treatments for bipolar depression included in the analysis.

Other Uses

Olanzapine may be useful in promoting weight gain in underweight adult outpatients with anorexia nervosa. However, no improvement of psychological symptoms was noted.

Olanzapine has been shown to be helpful in addressing a range of anxiety and depressive symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorders, and has since been used in the treatment of a range of mood and anxiety disorders. Olanzapine is no less effective than lithium or valproate and more effective than placebo in treating bipolar disorder. It has also been used for Tourette syndrome and stuttering.

Olanzapine has been studied for the treatment of hyperactivity, aggressive behaviour, and repetitive behaviours in autism.

Olanzapine is frequently prescribed off-label for the treatment of insomnia, including difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep. The daytime sedation experienced with olanzapine is generally comparable to quetiapine and lurasidone, which is a frequent complaint in clinical trials. In some cases, the sedation due to olanzapine impaired the ability of people to wake up at a consistent time every day. Some evidence of efficacy for treating insomnia is seen, but long-term studies (especially for safety) are still needed.

Olanzapine has been recommended to be used in antiemetic regimens in people receiving chemotherapy that has a high risk for vomiting.

Specific Populations

Pregnancy and Lactation

Olanzapine is associated with the highest placental exposure of any atypical antipsychotic. Despite this, the available evidence suggests it is safe during pregnancy, although the evidence is insufficiently strong to say anything with a high degree of confidence. Olanzapine is associated with weight gain, which according to recent studies, may put olanzapine-treated patients’ offspring at a heightened risk for neural tube defects (e.g. spina bifida). Breastfeeding in women taking olanzapine is advised against because olanzapine is secreted in breast milk, with one study finding that the exposure to the infant is about 1.8% that of the mother.

Elderly

Citing an increased risk of stroke, in 2004, the Committee on the Safety of Medicines in the UK issued a warning that olanzapine and risperidone, both atypical antipsychotic medications, should not be given to elderly patients with dementia. In the US, olanzapine comes with a black box warning for increased risk of death in elderly patients. It is not approved for use in patients with dementia-related psychosis. A BBC investigation in June 2008 found that this advice was being widely ignored by British doctors. Evidence suggested that the elderly are more likely to experience weight gain on olanzapine compared to aripiprazole and risperidone.

Adverse Effects

Refer to Adverse Effects of Olanzapine.

The principal side effect of olanzapine is weight gain, which may be profound in some cases and/or associated with derangement in blood-lipid and blood-sugar profiles (see section metabolic effects). A 2013 meta-analysis of the efficacy and tolerance of 15 antipsychotic drugs (APDs) found that it had the highest propensity for causing weight gain out of the 15 APDs compared with an SMD of 0.74. Extrapyramidal side effects, although potentially serious, are infrequent to rare from olanzapine, but may include tremors and muscle rigidity.

It is not recommended to be used by IM injection in acute myocardial infarction, bradycardia, recent heart surgery, severe hypotension, sick sinus syndrome, and unstable angina.

Several patient groups are at a heightened risk of side effects from olanzapine and antipsychotics in general. Olanzapine may produce nontrivial high blood sugar in people with diabetes mellitus. Likewise, the elderly are at a greater risk of falls and accidental injury. Young males appear to be at heightened risk of dystonic reactions, although these are relatively rare with olanzapine. Most antipsychotics, including olanzapine, may disrupt the body’s natural thermoregulatory systems, thus permitting excursions to dangerous levels when situations (exposure to heat, strenuous exercise) occur.

Other side effects include galactorrhoea, amenorrhea, gynecomastia, and erectile dysfunction (impotence).

Paradoxical Effects

Olanzapine is used therapeutically to treat serious mental illness. Occasionally, it can have the opposite effect and provoke serious paradoxical reactions in a small subgroup of people, causing unusual changes in personality, thoughts, or behaviour; hallucinations and excessive thoughts about suicide have also been linked to olanzapine use.

Drug-Induced OCD

Many different types of medication can create or induce pure obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in patients who have never had symptoms before. A new chapter about OCD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (2013) now specifically includes drug-induced OCD.

Atypical antipsychotics (second-generation antipsychotics), such as olanzapine (Zyprexa), have been proven to induce de novo OCD in patients.

Metabolic Effects

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires all atypical antipsychotics to include a warning about the risk of developing hyperglycaemia and diabetes, both of which are factors in the metabolic syndrome. These effects may be related to the drugs’ ability to induce weight gain, although some reports have been made of metabolic changes in the absence of weight gain. Studies have indicated that olanzapine carries a greater risk of causing and exacerbating diabetes than another commonly prescribed atypical antipsychotic, risperidone. Of all the atypical antipsychotics, olanzapine is one of the most likely to induce weight gain based on various measures. The effect is dose dependent in humans and animal models of olanzapine-induced metabolic side effects. There are some case reports of olanzapine-induced diabetic ketoacidosis. Olanzapine may decrease insulin sensitivity, though one 3-week study seems to refute this. It may also increase triglyceride levels.

Despite weight gain, a large multicentre, randomised National Institute of Mental Health study found that olanzapine was better at controlling symptoms because patients were more likely to remain on olanzapine than the other drugs. One small, open-label, nonrandomised study suggests that taking olanzapine by orally dissolving tablets may induce less weight gain, but this has not been substantiated in a blinded experimental setting.

Post-Injection Delirium/Sedation Syndrome

Postinjection delirium/sedation syndrome (PDSS) is a rare syndrome that is specific to the long-acting injectable formulation of olanzapine, olanzapine pamoate. The incidence of PDSS with olanzapine pamoate is estimated to be 0.07% of administrations, and is unique among other second-generation, long-acting antipsychotics (e.g. paliperidone palmitate), which do not appear to carry the same risk.[70] PDSS is characterised by symptoms of delirium (e.g. confusion, difficulty speaking, and uncoordinated movements) and sedation. Most people with PDSS exhibit both delirium and sedation (83%). Although less specific to PDSS, a majority of cases (67%) involved a feeling of general discomfort. PDSS may occur due to accidental injection and absorption of olanzapine pamoate into the bloodstream, where it can act more rapidly, as opposed to slowly distributing out from muscle tissue. Using the proper, intramuscular-injection technique for olanzapine pamoate helps to decrease the risk of PDSS, though it does not eliminate it entirely. This is why the FDA advises that people who are injected with olanzapine pamoate be watched for 3 hours after administration, in the event that PDSS occurs.

Animal Toxicology

Olanzapine has demonstrated carcinogenic effects in multiple studies when exposed chronically to female mice and rats, but not male mice and rats. The tumours found were in either the liver or mammary glands of the animals.

Discontinuation

The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly, vertigo, numbness, or muscle pains may occur. Symptoms generally resolve after a short time.

Tentative evidence indicates that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely, tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.

Overdose

Symptoms of an overdose include tachycardia, agitation, dysarthria, decreased consciousness, and coma. Death has been reported after an acute overdose of 450 mg, but also survival after an acute overdose of 2000 mg. Fatalities generally have occurred with olanzapine plasma concentrations greater than 1000 ng/mL post mortem, with concentrations up to 5200 ng/mL recorded (though this might represent confounding by dead tissue, which may release olanzapine into the blood upon death). No specific antidote for olanzapine overdose is known, and even physicians are recommended to call a certified poison control centre for information on the treatment of such a case. Olanzapine is considered moderately toxic in overdose, more toxic than quetiapine, aripiprazole, and the SSRIs, and less toxic than the monoamine oxidase inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants.

Interactions

Drugs or agents that increase the activity of the enzyme CYP1A2, notably tobacco smoke, may significantly increase hepatic first-pass clearance of olanzapine; conversely, drugs that inhibit CYP1A2 activity (examples: ciprofloxacin, fluvoxamine) may reduce olanzapine clearance. Carbamazepine, a known enzyme inducer, has decreased the concentration/dose ration of olanzapine by 33% compared to olanzapine alone. Another enzyme inducer, ritonavir, has also been shown to decrease the body’s exposure to olanzapine, due to its induction of the enzymes CYP1A2 and uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT). Probenecid increases the total exposure (area under the curve) and maximum plasma concentration of olanzapine. Although olanzapine’s metabolism includes the minor metabolic pathway of CYP2D6, the presence of the CYP2D6 inhibitor fluoxetine does not have a clinically significant effect on olanzapine’s clearance.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Olanzapine has a higher affinity for 5-HT2A serotonin receptors than D2 dopamine receptors, which is a common property of most atypical antipsychotics, aside from the benzamide antipsychotics such as amisulpride along with the nonbenzamides aripiprazole, brexpiprazole, blonanserin, cariprazine, melperone, and perospirone.

Olanzapine had the highest affinity of any second-generation antipsychotic towards the P-glycoprotein in one in vitro study. P-glycoprotein transports a myriad of drugs across a number of different biological membranes (found in numerous body systems) including the blood-brain barrier (a semipermeable membrane that filters the contents of blood prior to it reaching the brain); P-GP inhibition could mean that less brain exposure to olanzapine results from this interaction with the P-glycoprotein. A relatively large quantity of commonly encountered foods and medications inhibit P-GP, and pharmaceuticals fairly commonly are either substrates of P-GP, or inhibit its action; both substrates and inhibitors of P-GP effectively increase the permeability of the blood-brain barrier to P-GP substrates and subsequently increase the central activity of the substrate, while reducing the local effects on the GI tract. The mediation of olanzapine in the central nervous system by P-GP means that any other substance or drug that interacts with P-GP increases the risk for toxic accumulations of both olanzapine and the other drug.

Olanzapine is a potent antagonist of the muscarinic M3 receptor, which may underlie its diabetogenic side effects. Additionally, it also exhibits a relatively low affinity for serotonin 5-HT1, GABAA, beta-adrenergic receptors, and benzodiazepine binding sites.

The mode of action of olanzapine’s antipsychotic activity is unknown. It may involve antagonism of dopamine and serotonin receptors. Antagonism of dopamine receptors is associated with extrapyramidal effects such as tardive dyskinesia (TD), and with therapeutic effects. Antagonism of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors is associated with anticholinergic side effects such as dry mouth and constipation; in addition, it may suppress or reduce the emergence of extrapyramidal effects for the duration of treatment, but it offers no protection against the development of TD. In common with other second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics, olanzapine poses a relatively low risk of extrapyramidal side effects including TD, due to its higher affinity for the 5HT2A receptor over the D2 receptor.

Antagonizing H1 histamine receptors causes sedation and may cause weight gain, although antagonistic actions at serotonin 5-HT2C and dopamine D2 receptors have also been associated with weight gain and appetite stimulation.

Pharmacokinetics

Metabolism

Olanzapine is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system; principally by isozyme 1A2 (CYP1A2) and to a lesser extent by CYP2D6. By these mechanisms, more than 40% of the oral dose, on average, is removed by the hepatic first-pass effect. Clearance of olanzapine appears to vary by sex; women have roughly 25% lower clearance than men. Clearance of olanzapine also varies by race; in self-identified African Americans or Blacks, olanzapine’s clearance was 26% higher. A difference in the clearance does not apparent between individuals identifying as Caucasian, Chinese, or Japanese. Routine, pharmacokinetic monitoring of olanzapine plasma levels is generally unwarranted, though unusual circumstances (e.g. the presence of drug-drug interactions) or a desire to determine if patients are taking their medicine may prompt its use.

Chemistry

Olanzapine is unusual in having four well-characterised crystalline polymorphs and many hydrated forms.

Society and Culture

Regulatory Status

Olanzapine is approved by the US FDA for:

  • Treatment – in combination with fluoxetine – of depressive episodes associated with bipolar disorder (December 2003).
  • Long-term treatment of bipolar I disorder (January 2004).
  • Long-term treatment – in combination with fluoxetine – of resistant depression (March 2009).
  • Oral formulation: acute and maintenance treatment of schizophrenia in adults, acute treatment of manic or mixed episodes associated with bipolar I disorder (monotherapy and in combination with lithium or sodium valproate).
  • Intramuscular formulation: acute agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar I mania in adults.
  • Oral formulation combined with fluoxetine: treatment of acute depressive episodes associated with bipolar I disorder in adults, or treatment of acute, resistant depression in adults.
  • Treatment of the manifestations of psychotic disorders (September 1996 to March 2000).
  • Short-term treatment of acute manic episodes associated with bipolar I disorder (March 2000).
  • Short-term treatment of schizophrenia instead of the management of the manifestations of psychotic disorders (March 2000).
  • Maintaining treatment response in schizophrenic patients who had been stable for about eight weeks and were then followed for a period of up to eight months (November 2000).

The drug became generic in 2011.

Sales of Zyprexa in 2008 were $2.2 billion in the US and $4.7 billion worldwide.

Controversy and Litigation

Eli Lilly has faced many lawsuits from people who claimed they developed diabetes or other diseases after taking Zyprexa, as well as by various governmental entities, insurance companies, and others. Lilly produced a large number of documents as part of the discovery phase of this litigation, which started in 2004; the documents were ruled to be confidential by a judge and placed under seal, and later themselves became the subject of litigation.

In 2006, Lilly paid $700 million to settle around 8,000 of these lawsuits, and in early 2007, Lilly settled around 18,000 suits for $500 million, which brought the total Lilly had paid to settle suits related to the drug to $1.2 billion.

A December 2006 New York Times article based on leaked company documents concluded that the company had engaged in a deliberate effort to downplay olanzapine’s side effects. The company denied these allegations and stated that the article had been based on cherry-picked documents. The documents were provided to the Times by Jim Gottstein, a lawyer who represented mentally ill patients, who obtained them from a doctor, David Egilman, who was serving as an expert consultant on the case. After the documents were leaked to online peer-to-peer, file-sharing networks by Will Hall and others in the psychiatric survivors movement, who obtained copies, in 2007 Lilly filed a protection order to stop the dissemination of some of the documents, which Judge Jack B. Weinstein of the Brooklyn Federal District Court granted. Judge Weinstein also criticized the New York Times reporter, Gottstein, and Egilman in the ruling. The Times of London also received the documents and reported that as early as 1998, Lilly considered the risk of drug-induced obesity to be a “top threat” to Zyprexa sales. On 09 October 2000, senior Lilly research physician Robert Baker noted that an academic advisory board to which he belonged was “quite impressed by the magnitude of weight gain on olanzapine and implications for glucose.”

Lilly had threatened Egilman with criminal contempt charges regarding the documents he took and provided to reporters; in September 2007, he agreed to pay Lilly $100,000 in return for the company’s agreement to drop the threat of charges.

In September 2008, Judge Weinstein issued an order to make public Lilly’s internal documents about the drug in a different suit brought by insurance companies, pension funds, and other payors.

In March 2008, Lilly settled a suit with the state of Alaska, and in October 2008, Lilly agreed to pay $62 million to 32 states and the District of Columbia to settle suits brought under state consumer protection laws.

In 2009, Eli Lilly pleaded guilty to a US federal criminal misdemeanour charge of illegally marketing Zyprexa for off-label use and agreed to pay $1.4 billion. The settlement announcement stated “Eli Lilly admits that between September 1999 and 31 March 2001, the company promoted Zyprexa in elderly populations as treatment for dementia, including Alzheimer’s dementia. Eli Lilly has agreed to pay a $515 million criminal fine and to forfeit an additional $100 million in assets.”

Trade Names

Olanzapine is generic and available under many trade names worldwide.

Dosage Forms

Olanzapine is marketed in a number of countries, with tablets ranging from 2.5 to 20 mg. Zyprexa (and generic olanzapine) is available as an orally disintegrating “wafer”, which rapidly dissolves in saliva. It is also available in 10-mg vials for intramuscular injection.

Research

Olanzapine has been studied as an antiemetic, particularly for the control of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV).

In general, olanzapine appears to be about as effective as aprepitant for the prevention of CINV, though some concerns remain for its use in this population. For example, concomitant use of metoclopramide or haloperidol increases the risk for extrapyramidal symptoms. Otherwise, olanzapine appears to be fairly well tolerated for this indication, with somnolence being the most common side effect.

Olanzapine has been considered as part of an early psychosis approach for schizophrenia. The Prevention through Risk Identification, Management, and Education study, funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and Eli Lilly, tested the hypothesis that olanzapine might prevent the onset of psychosis in people at very high risk for schizophrenia. The study examined 60 patients with prodromal schizophrenia, who were at an estimated risk of 36-54% of developing schizophrenia within a year, and treated half with olanzapine and half with placebo. In this study, patients receiving olanzapine did not have a significantly lower risk of progressing to psychosis. Olanzapine was effective for treating the prodromal symptoms, but was associated with significant weight gain.

What is Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy?

Published on by Andrew Marshall2 Comments

Introduction

Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy (IPSRT) is an intervention for people with bipolar disorder (BD).

Its primary focus is stabilising the circadian rhythm disruptions that are common among people with bipolar disorder. IPSRT draws upon principles from interpersonal psychotherapy, an evidence-based treatment for depression and emphasizes the importance of daily routine (rhythm).

IPSRT was developed by Ellen Frank, PhD at the University of Pittsburgh who published a book on her theories: Treating Bipolar Disorder, a Clinician’s Guide Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy. Her research on IPSRT has shown that, in combination with medication, solving interpersonal problems and maintaining regular daily rhythms of sleeping, waking, eating, and exercise can increase quality of life, reduce mood symptoms, and help prevent relapse in people with BD.

Social Zeitgeber Hypothesis

Zeitgebers (“time givers”) are environmental cues that synchronize biological rhythms to the 24-hour light/dark cycle. As the sun is a physical zeitgeber, social factors are considered social zeitgebers. These include personal relationships, social demands, or life tasks that entrain circadian rhythms. Disruptions in circadian rhythms can lead to somatic and cognitive symptoms, as seen in jet lag or during daylight saving time. Individuals diagnosed with, or at risk for, mood disorders may be especially sensitive to these disruptions and thus, vulnerable to episodes of depression or mania when circadian rhythm disruptions occur.

Changes in daily routines place stress on the body’s maintenance of sleep-wake cycles, appetite, energy, and alertness, all of which are affected during mood episodes. For example, depressive symptoms include disturbed sleep patterns (sleeping too much or difficulty falling asleep), changes in appetite, fatigue, and slowed movement or agitation. Manic symptoms include decreased need for sleep, excessive energy, and increase in goal-directed activity. When the body’s rhythms becomes desynchronised, it can result in episodes of depression and mania.

Aims of Treatment

Goals of IPSRT are to stabilise social rhythms (e.g. eating meals with other people) while improving the quality of interpersonal relationships and satisfaction with social roles. Stabilising social rhythms helps to protect against disruptions of biological rhythms; individuals are more likely to maintain a rhythm when other people are involved to hold them accountable.

Interpersonal work can involve addressing unresolved grief experiences including grief for the lost healthy self, negotiating a transition in a major life role, and resolving a role dispute with a significant other. These experiences can be disruptive to social rhythms and thus, serve as targets of treatment to prevent the onset and recurrence of mood episodes seen in bipolar disorder.

Phases of Treatment

IPSRT typically proceeds in four phases:

  1. The initial phase involves a review of the patient’s mental health history in order to elucidate patterns in the associations between social routine disruptions, interpersonal problems and affective episodes. Psychoeducation about BD and the importance of stable routines to mood maintenance is provided. Additionally, The Interpersonal Inventory is used to assess the quality of the patient’s interpersonal relationships. One of four interpersonal problem areas is chosen to focus on:
    • Grief (e.g. loss of loved one, loss of healthy self).
    • Role transitions (e.g. married-to-divorced, parenthood).
    • Role disputes (e.g. conflict with spouse or parents).
    • Interpersonal deficits (e.g. persistent social isolation).
      • The Social Rhythm Metric (SRM) is used to assess the regularity of social routines.
      • Target and actual time of the following activities are tracked on a daily basis: got out of bed; first contact with another person; started work, school, or housework; ate dinner; and went into bed.
      • The intensity of involvement with other people is also rated: 0 = alone, 1 = others present, 2 = others actively involved, and 3 = others very stimulating.
      • Finally, mood is rated on a scale of -5 to +5 at the end of each day.
  2. The intermediate phase focuses on bringing regularity to social rhythms and intervening in the interpersonal problem area of interest.
    • SRM is heavily used to assess amount of activity being engaged in and the impact of activity on mood. The regularity (or irregularity) of activities is examined, and the patient and therapist collaboratively plan how to stabilise the daily routine by making incremental behavioural modifications until a regular target time at which these activities are done is achieved.
    • Sources of interpersonal distress are explored, and individuals in the patient’s life who destabilise routine, along with those who are supportive, are identified. Frequency and intensity of social interactions, as well as other social rhythms (e.g. time at which returning home from school/work and then interacting with family), are discussed.
  3. The maintenance phase aims to reinforce the techniques learned earlier in treatment in order to maintain social rhythms and positive interpersonal relationships.
    • Discussion of early warning signs of episodes are reviewed.
    • Symptomatic and functional change is monitored at each session by asking the patient to rate their mood and note any shifts in routine using the SRM.
  4. The final phase involves termination in which sessions are gradually reduced in frequency.

Interpersonal Strategies

Once the interpersonal problem area of focus is chosen, the following strategies may be used:

  1. Grief:
    • This refers to symptoms resulting from incomplete mourning or unresolved feelings about the death of an important person.
    • This can also refer to grief for the loss of a healthy self (i.e. the person before the illness or the person one could have become, if not for BD).
    • Strategies include encouraging expression of painful feelings about lost hopes, ruined relationships, interrupted careers, and passed opportunities.
    • This is followed by encouragement to develop new relationships, establish new, more realistic goals, and focus on future opportunities.
  2. Interpersonal role disputes:
    • This refers to any close relationship in which there are nonreciprocal expectations, such as in marital conflict and arguments with parental figures.
    • Strategies include learning how to be more patient, tolerant, and accepting of limitations in self and others.
    • This, in turn, can lead to fewer critical and argumentative instincts.
  3. Role transition:
    • This refers to any major life role change, such as new employment, graduation, retirement, marriage, divorce, and giving birth.
    • This can also refer to the loss of previously pleasurable hypomania.
    • Strategies can include noting the negative consequences of hypomania and encouraging the identification of rewarding life goals as suitable alternatives.
  4. Interpersonal deficits:
    • This refers to a long-standing history of impoverished or contentious social relationships, leading to an overall feeling of dissatisfaction.
    • Strategies include identifying the common thread in the multiple disputes across one’s life and possibly working to restore “burnt bridges”.

Social Rhythm Strategies

Individuals with BD benefit from a higher level of stability in their sleep and daily routines than those with no history of affective illness. It is important to identify situations in which routines can be thrown off balance, whether by excessive activity and overstimulation or lack of activity and under-stimulation. Once destabilizing triggers are identified, reasonable goals for change are established. Specific strategies include:

  1. Encouraging proper sleep hygiene to introduce regularity to sleep-wake cycle.
    • Establish a regular wake and sleep time.
    • Avoid caffeine or other stimulants.
    • Use the bed only for sleep and sex, not for watching TV, doing homework, reading etc.
    • Align sunlight exposure with wake time to help set circadian clock.
  2. Maintaining regular meal times throughout the day.
    • Plan ahead by meal prepping the day before.
    • Include snack times if needed to encourage consistent eating habits.
  3. Encouraging medication adherence and establishing a regular schedule.
    • Use alarms on phone as reminders for when to take pills.
    • Use daily pillboxes to keep track of which pills to take at certain times.
  4. Monitoring frequency and intensity of social interactions using Social Rhythm Metric.
    • Note time at which interactions happen and adjust accordingly to establish regularity.
  5. Minimising overstimulation of social interactions.
    • Avoid frequent parties or events.
    • Use recovery days as needed.
  6. Addressing under-stimulation with behavioural activation.
    • Engage in activities that are pleasurable and that give one a sense of mastery.
    • Focus on small, manageable goals that can lead to engagement in other activities (e.g. start jogging to get in shape prior to joining a basketball team).
  7. Identifying interpersonal sources of stabilizing and destabilising influence.
    • Spend time with those who are supportive and stabilising.
    • Reduce time with those who are disruptive.

Evidence of IPSRT Efficacy

In a randomized controlled trial, those who received IPSRT during the acute treatment phase went longer without a new affective episode (depression or mania) than those who received intensive clinical management. Participants in the IPSRT group also had higher regularity of social rhythms at the end of acute treatment, which was associated with reduced likelihood of relapse during maintenance phase. Additionally, those who received IPSRT showed more rapid improvement in occupational functioning than those assigned to intensive clinical management. However, at the end of two years of maintenance treatment, there were no differences between treatment groups.

IPSRT was studied as one of three intensive psychosocial treatments in the NIMH-funded Systematic Treatment Enhancement Programme for Bipolar Disorder. STEP-BD was a long-term outpatient study investigating the benefits of psychotherapies in conjunction with pharmacotherapy in treating episodes of depression and mania, as well as preventing relapse in people with bipolar disorder. Patients were 1.58 times more likely to be well in any study month if they received intensive psychotherapy (cognitive-behavioural therapy, family focused therapy, or IPSRT) than if they received collaborative care in addition to pharmacotherapy. They also had significantly higher year-end recovery rates and shorter times to recovery.

In a trial conducted by a separate research group, 100 participants aged 15-36 years with bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and bipolar disorder not otherwise specified were randomised to IPSRT (n = 49) or specialist supportive care (n = 51). Both groups experienced improvement in depressive symptoms, social functioning, and manic symptoms, but there were no significant differences between the groups.

Adolescents

IPSRT was adapted to be delivered to adolescents with BD. In an open trial (N=12), feasibility and acceptability of IPSRT-A were high; 11/12 participants completed treatment, 97% of sessions were attended, and adolescent-rated satisfaction scores were high. IPSRT-A participants experienced significant decreases in manic, depressive, and general psychiatric symptoms over the 20 weeks of treatment. Participants’ global functioning increased significantly as well.

In an open trial aimed at prevention, adolescents (N=13) who were identified as high risk for bipolar disorder, due to having a first-degree relative with BD, received IPSRT. Significant changes in sleep/circadian patterns (i.e. less weekend sleeping in and oversleeping) were observed. Families reported high satisfaction with IPSRT, yet, on average, participants attended about half of scheduled sessions. Missed sessions were primarily associated with parental BD illness severity.

Group Therapy

IPSRT was adapted for a group therapy setting; administered over 16 sessions, in a semi-structured format. Patients (N=22) made interpersonal goals, reflected on how they managed their illness, and empathised with fellow group members. Patients were encouraged to react to each other from their own experience, express their feelings about what was said, and to give constructive feedback. Patients spent significantly less time depressed in the year following treatment than they did in the year prior to treatment.

In another small trial, patients with BD who experiencing a depressive episode (N = 9) received six IPSRT-G sessions across two weeks. Topics of discussion in group included defining interpersonal focus area, defining target times for daily routines, discussing grief and medication adherence, addressing interpersonal disputes and role transitions, and reviewing IPSRT strategies and relapse prevention. Depressive symptoms improved significantly at the end of the treatment; improvements were maintained 10 weeks following treatment end.

What is Loxapine?

Published on by Andrew Marshall2 Comments

Introduction

Loxapine, sold under the brand names Loxitane and Adasuve (inhalation only) among others, is a typical antipsychotic medication used primarily in the treatment of schizophrenia.

The drug is a member of the dibenzoxazepine class and structurally related to clozapine. Several researchers have argued that loxapine may behave as an atypical antipsychotic.

Loxapine may be metabolised by N-demethylation to amoxapine, a tricyclic antidepressant.

Medical Uses

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved loxapine inhalation powder for the acute treatment of agitation associated with schizophrenia or bipolar I disorder in adults.

A brief review of loxapine found no conclusive evidence that it was particularly effective in patients with paranoid schizophrenia. A subsequent systematic review considered that the limited evidence did not indicate a clear difference in its effects from other antipsychotics.

Available Forms

Loxapine can be taken by mouth as a capsule or a liquid oral concentrate. It is also available as an intramuscular injection and as a powder for inhalation.

Side Effects

Loxapine can cause side effects that are generally similar to that of other medications in the typical antipsychotic class of medications. These include, e.g. gastrointestinal problems (like constipation and abdominal pain), cardiovascular problems (like tachycardia), moderate likelihood of drowsiness (relative to other antipsychotics), and movement problems (i.e. extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS)). At lower dosages its propensity for causing EPS appears to be similar to that of atypical antipsychotics. Although it is structurally similar to clozapine, it does not have the same risk of agranulocytosis (which, even with clozapine, is less than 1%); however, mild and temporary fluctuations in blood leukocyte levels can occur. Abuse of loxapine has been reported.

The inhaled formulation of loxapine carries a low risk for a type of airway adverse reaction called bronchospasm that is not thought to occur when loxapine is taken by mouth.

Pharmacology

Mechanism of Action

Loxapine is a “mid-potency” typical antipsychotic. However, unlike most other typical antipsychotics, it has significant potency at the 5HT2A receptor (6.6 nM), which is similar to atypical antipsychotics like clozapine (5.35 nM). The higher likelihood of EPS with loxapine, compared to clozapine, may be due to its high potency for the D2 receptor.

Pharmacokinetics

Loxapine is metabolised to amoxapine, as well as its 8-hydroxy metabolite (8-hydroxyloxapine). Amoxapine is further metabolized to its 8-hydroxy metabolite (8-hydroxyamoxapine), which is also found in the blood of people taking loxapine. At steady-state after taking loxapine by mouth, the relative amounts of loxapine and its metabolites in the blood is as follows: 8-hydroxyloxapine > 8-hydroxyamoxapine > loxapine.

The pharmacokinetics of loxapine change depending on how it is given. Intramuscular injections of loxapine lead to higher blood levels and area under the curve of loxapine than when it is taken by mouth.

Chemistry

Loxapine is a dibenzoxazepine and is structurally related to clozapine.

What is Haloperidol?

Published on by Andrew Marshall30 Comments

Introduction

Haloperidol, sold under the brand name Haldol among others, is a typical antipsychotic medication.

Haloperidol is used in the treatment of schizophrenia, tics in Tourette syndrome, mania in bipolar disorder, delirium, agitation, acute psychosis, and hallucinations in alcohol withdrawal. It may be used by mouth or injection into a muscle or a vein. Haloperidol typically works within 30 to 60 minutes. A long-acting formulation may be used as an injection every four weeks in people with schizophrenia or related illnesses, who either forget or refuse to take the medication by mouth.

Haloperidol may result in a movement disorder known as tardive dyskinesia which may be permanent. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and QT interval prolongation may occur. In older people with psychosis due to dementia it results in an increased risk of death. When taken during pregnancy it may result in problems in the infant. It should not be used in people with Parkinson’s disease.

Haloperidol was discovered in 1958 by Paul Janssen. It was made from pethidine (meperidine). It is on the World Health Organisation’s (WHO’s) List of Essential Medicines. It is the most commonly used typical antipsychotic. In 2017, it was the 296th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than one million prescriptions.

Refer to Haloperidol Decanoate.

Brief History

Haloperidol was discovered by Paul Janssen. It was developed in 1958 at the Belgian company Janssen Pharmaceutica and submitted to the first of clinical trials in Belgium later that year.

Haloperidol was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 12 April 1967; it was later marketed in the US and other countries under the brand name Haldol by McNeil Laboratories.

Medical Uses

Haloperidol is used in the control of the symptoms of:

  • Acute psychosis, such as drug-induced psychosis caused by LSD, psilocybin, amphetamines, ketamine, and phencyclidine, and psychosis associated with high fever or metabolic disease.
    • Some evidence, however, has found haloperidol to worsen psychosis due to psilocybin.
  • Adjunctive treatment of alcohol and opioid withdrawal.
  • Agitation and confusion associated with cerebral sclerosis.
  • Alcohol-induced psychosis.
  • Hallucinations in alcohol withdrawal.
  • Hyperactive delirium (to control the agitation component of delirium).
  • Hyperactivity, aggression.
  • Otherwise uncontrollable, severe behavioral disorders in children and adolescents.
  • Schizophrenia.
  • Therapeutic trial in personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder.
  • Treatment of intractable hiccups.
  • Treatment of neurological disorders, such as tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome, and chorea.
  • Treatment of severe nausea and emesis in postoperative and palliative care, especially for palliating adverse effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy in oncology.

Haloperidol was considered indispensable for treating psychiatric emergency situations, although the newer atypical drugs have gained a greater role in a number of situations as outlined in a series of consensus reviews published between 2001 and 2005.

In a 2013 comparison of 15 antipsychotics in schizophrenia, haloperidol demonstrated standard effectiveness. It was 13-16% more effective than ziprasidone, chlorpromazine, and asenapine, approximately as effective as quetiapine and aripiprazole, and 10% less effective than paliperidone.

Pregnancy and Lactation

Data from animal experiments indicate haloperidol is not teratogenic, but is embryotoxic in high doses. In humans, no controlled studies exist. Reports in pregnant women revealed possible damage to the foetus, although most of the women were exposed to multiple drugs during pregnancy. In addition, reports indicate neonates exposed to antipsychotic drugs are at risk for extrapyramidal and/or withdrawal symptoms following delivery, such as agitation, hypertonia, hypotonia, tremor, somnolence, respiratory distress, and feeding disorder. Following accepted general principles, haloperidol should be given during pregnancy only if the benefit to the mother clearly outweighs the potential foetal risk.

Haloperidol is excreted in breast milk. A few studies have examined the impact of haloperidol exposure on breastfed infants and in most cases, there were no adverse effects on infant growth and development.

Other Considerations

During long-term treatment of chronic psychiatric disorders, the daily dose should be reduced to the lowest level needed for maintenance of remission. Sometimes, it may be indicated to terminate haloperidol treatment gradually. In addition, during long-term use, routine monitoring including measurement of BMI, blood pressure, fasting blood sugar, and lipids, is recommended due to the risk of side effects.

Other forms of therapy (psychotherapy, occupational therapy/ergotherapy, or social rehabilitation) should be instituted properly. PET imaging studies have suggested low doses are preferable. Clinical response was associated with at least 65% occupancy of D2 receptors, while greater than 72% was likely to cause hyperprolactinaemia and over 78% associated with extrapyramidal side effects. Doses of haloperidol greater than 5 mg increased the risk of side effects without improving efficacy. Patients responded with doses under even 2 mg in first-episode psychosis. For maintenance treatment of schizophrenia, an international consensus conference recommended a reduction dosage by about 20% every 6 months until a minimal maintenance dose is established.

Depot forms are also available; these are injected deeply intramuscularly at regular intervals. The depot forms are not suitable for initial treatment, but are suitable for patients who have demonstrated inconsistency with oral dosages.

The decanoate ester of haloperidol (haloperidol decanoate, trade names Haldol decanoate, Halomonth, Neoperidole) has a much longer duration of action, so is often used in people known to be noncompliant with oral medication. A dose is given by intramuscular injection once every two to four weeks. The IUPAC name of haloperidol decanoate is [4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxobutyl]piperidin-4-yl] decanoate.

Topical formulations of haloperidol should not be used as treatment for nausea because research does not indicate this therapy is more effective than alternatives.

Adverse Effects

As haloperidol is a high-potency typical antipsychotic, it tends to produce significant extrapyramidal side effects. According to a 2013 meta-analysis of the comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs it was the most prone of the 15 for causing extrapyramidal side effects.

With more than 6 months of use 14 percent of users gain weight. Haloperidol may be neurotoxic.

  • Common (>1% incidence):
    • Extrapyramidal side effects including:
      • Akathisia (motor restlessness).
      • Dystonia (continuous spasms and muscle contractions).
      • Muscle rigidity.
      • Parkinsonism (characteristic symptoms such as rigidity).
    • Hypotension:
    • Anticholinergic side effects such as (These adverse effects are less common than with lower-potency typical antipsychotics, such as chlorpromazine and thioridazine):
      • Blurred vision.
      • Constipation.
      • Dry mouth.
    • Somnolence (which is not a particularly prominent side effect, as is supported by the results of the aforementioned meta-analysis).
  • Unknown frequency:
    • Anaemia.
    • Headache.
    • Increased respiratory rate.
    • Orthostatic hypotension.
    • Prolonged QT interval.
    • Visual disturbances.
  • Rare (<1% incidence):
    • Acute hepatic failure.
    • Agitation.
    • Agranulocytosis.
    • Anaphylactic reaction.
    • Anorexia.
    • Bronchospasm.
    • Cataracts.
    • Cholestasis.
    • Confusional state.
    • Depression.
    • Dermatitis exfoliative.
    • Dyspnoea.
    • Oedema.
    • Extrasystoles.
    • Face oedema.
    • Gynecomastia.
    • Hepatitis.
    • Hyperglycaemia.
    • Hypersensitivity.
    • Hyperthermia.
    • Hypoglycaemia.
    • Hyponatremia.
    • Hypothermia.
    • Increased sweating.
    • Injection site abscess.
    • Insomnia.
    • Itchiness.
    • Jaundice.
    • Laryngeal oedema.
    • Laryngospasm.
    • Leukocytoclastic vasculitis.
    • Leukopenia.
    • Liver function test abnormal.
    • Nausea.
    • Neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
    • Neutropenia.
    • Pancytopenia.
    • Photosensitivity reaction.
    • Priapism.
    • Psychotic disorder.
    • Pulmonary embolism.
    • Rash.
    • Retinopathy.
    • Seizure.
    • Sudden death.
    • Tardive dyskinesia.
    • Thrombocytopenia.
    • Torsades de pointes.
    • Urinary retention.
    • Urticaria.
    • Ventricular fibrillation.
    • Ventricular tachycardia.
    • Vomiting.

Contraindications

  • Pre-existing coma, acute stroke.
  • Severe intoxication with alcohol or other central depressant drugs.
  • Known allergy against haloperidol or other butyrophenones or other drug ingredients.
  • Known heart disease, when combined will tend towards cardiac arrest.

Special Cautions

  • A multiple-year study suggested this drug and other neuroleptic antipsychotic drugs commonly given to people with Alzheimer’s with mild behavioural problems often make their condition worse and its withdrawal was even beneficial for some cognitive and functional measures.
  • Elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis: analysis of 17 trials showed the risk of death in this group of patients was 1.6 to 1.7 times that of placebo-treated patients.
    • Most of the causes of death were either cardiovascular or infectious in nature.
    • It is not clear to what extent this observation is attributed to antipsychotic drugs rather than the characteristics of the patients.
    • The drug bears a boxed warning about this risk.
  • Impaired liver function, as haloperidol is metabolised and eliminated mainly by the liver.
  • In patients with hyperthyroidism, the action of haloperidol is intensified and side effects are more likely.
  • IV injections: risk of hypotension or orthostatic collapse.
  • Patients at special risk for the development of QT prolongation (hypokalaemia, concomitant use of other drugs causing QT prolongation).
  • Patients with a history of leukopenia: a complete blood count should be monitored frequently during the first few months of therapy and discontinuation of the drug should be considered at the first sign of a clinically significant decline in white blood cells.
  • Pre-existing Parkinson’s disease or dementia with Lewy bodies.

Interactions

  • Amiodarone: Q-Tc interval prolongation (potentially dangerous change in heart rhythm).
  • Amphetamine and methylphenidate: counteracts increased action of norepinephrine and dopamine in patients with narcolepsy or ADD/ADHD.
  • Epinephrine: action antagonised, paradoxical decrease in blood pressure may result.
  • Guanethidine: antihypertensive action antagonised.
  • Levodopa: decreased action of levodopa.
  • Lithium: rare cases of the following symptoms have been noted: encephalopathy, early and late extrapyramidal side effects, other neurologic symptoms, and coma.
  • Methyldopa: increased risk of extrapyramidal side effects and other unwanted central effects.
  • Other central depressants (alcohol, tranquilizers, narcotics): actions and side effects of these drugs (sedation, respiratory depression) are increased.
    • In particular, the doses of concomitantly used opioids for chronic pain can be reduced by 50%.
  • Other drugs metabolised by the CYP3A4 enzyme system: inducers such as carbamazepine, phenobarbital, and rifampicin decrease plasma levels and inhibitors such as quinidine, buspirone, and fluoxetine increase plasma levels.
  • Tricyclic antidepressants: metabolism and elimination of tricyclics significantly decreased, increased toxicity noted (anticholinergic and cardiovascular side effects, lowering of seizure threshold).

Discontinuation

The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.

There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.

Overdose

Symptoms

Symptoms are usually due to side effects. Most often encountered are:

  • Anticholinergic side effects (dry mouth, constipation, paralytic ileus, difficulties in urinating, decreased perspiration).
  • Coma in severe cases, accompanied by respiratory depression and massive hypotension, shock.
  • Hypotension or hypertension.
  • Rarely, serious ventricular arrhythmia (torsades de pointes), with or without prolonged QT-time.
  • Sedation.
  • Severe extrapyramidal side effects with muscle rigidity and tremors, akathisia, etc.

Treatment

Treatment is mostly symptomatic and involves intensive care with stabilisation of vital functions. In early detected cases of oral overdose, induction of emesis, gastric lavage, and the use of activated charcoal can be tried. In the case of a severe overdose, antidotes such as bromocriptine or ropinirole may be used to treat the extrapyramidal effects caused by haloperidol, acting as dopamine receptor agonists. ECG and vital signs should be monitored especially for QT prolongation and severe arrhythmias should be treated with antiarrhythmic measures.

Prognosis

In general, the prognosis of overdose is good, provided the person has survived the initial phase. An overdose of haloperidol can be fatal.

Pharmacology

Haloperidol is a typical butyrophenone type antipsychotic that exhibits high affinity dopamine D2 receptor antagonism and slow receptor dissociation kinetics. It has effects similar to the phenothiazines. The drug binds preferentially to D2 and α1 receptors at low dose (ED50 = 0.13 and 0.42 mg/kg, respectively), and 5-HT2 receptors at a higher dose (ED50 = 2.6 mg/kg). Given that antagonism of D2 receptors is more beneficial on the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and antagonism of 5-HT2 receptors on the negative symptoms, this characteristic underlies haloperidol’s greater effect on delusions, hallucinations and other manifestations of psychosis. Haloperidol’s negligible affinity for histamine H1 receptors and muscarinic M1 acetylcholine receptors yields an antipsychotic with a lower incidence of sedation, weight gain, and orthostatic hypotension though having higher rates of treatment emergent extrapyramidal symptoms.

Haloperidol acts on these receptors: (Ki)

  • D1 (silent antagonist) – Unknown efficiency.
  • D5 (silent antagonist) – Unknown efficiency.
  • D2 (inverse agonist) – 0.7 nM.
  • D3 (inverse agonist) – 0.2 nM.
  • D4 (inverse agonist) – 5–9 nM.
  • σ1 (irreversible inactivation by haloperidol metabolite HPP+) – 3 nM.
  • σ2 (agonist): 54 nM.
  • 5HT1A receptor agonist – 1927 nM.
  • 5HT2A (silent antagonist) – 53 nM.
  • 5HT2C (silent antagonist) – 10,000 nM.
  • 5HT6 (silent antagonist) – 3666 nM.
  • 5HT7 (irreversible silent antagonist) – 377.2 nM.
  • H1 (silent antagonist) – 1,800 nM.
  • M1 (silent antagonist) – 10,000 nM.
  • α1A (silent antagonist) – 12 nM.
  • α2A (silent antagonist) – 1130 nM.
  • α2B (silent antagonist) – 480 nM.
  • α2C (silent antagonist) – 550 nM.
  • NR1/NR2B subunit containing NMDA receptor (antagonist; ifenprodil site): IC50 – 2,000 nM.

Pharmacokinetics

By Mouth

The bioavailability of oral haloperidol ranges from 60-70%. However, there is a wide variance in reported mean Tmax and T1/2 in different studies, ranging from 1.7 to 6.1 hours and 14.5 to 36.7 hours respectively.

Intramuscular Injections

The drug is well and rapidly absorbed with a high bioavailability when injected intramuscularly. The Tmax is 20 minutes in healthy individuals and 33.8 minutes in patients with schizophrenia. The mean T1/2 is 20.7 hours. The decanoate injectable formulation is for intramuscular administration only and is not intended to be used intravenously. The plasma concentrations of haloperidol decanoate reach a peak at about six days after the injection, falling thereafter, with an approximate half-life of three weeks.

Intravenous Injections

The bioavailability is 100% in intravenous (IV) injection, and the very rapid onset of action is seen within seconds. The T1/2 is 14.1 to 26.2 hours. The apparent volume of distribution is between 9.5 and 21.7 L/kg. The duration of action is four to six hours.

Therapeutic Concentrations

Plasma levels of five to 15 micrograms per litre are typically seen for therapeutic response (Ulrich S, et al. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998). The determination of plasma levels is rarely used to calculate dose adjustments but can be useful to check compliance.

The concentration of haloperidol in brain tissue is about 20-fold higher compared to blood levels. It is slowly eliminated from brain tissue, which may explain the slow disappearance of side effects when the medication is stopped.

Distribution and Metabolism

Haloperidol is heavily protein bound in human plasma, with a free fraction of only 7.5 to 11.6%. It is also extensively metabolised in the liver with only about 1% of the administered dose excreted unchanged in the urine. The greatest proportion of the hepatic clearance is by glucuronidation, followed by reduction and CYP-mediated oxidation, primarily by CYP3A4.

Society and Culture

Cost

Haloperidol is relatively inexpensive, being up to 100 fold less expensive than newer antipsychotics.

Brand Names

Haloperidol is the INN, BAN, USAN, AAN approved name.

It is sold under the tradenames Aloperidin, Bioperidolo, Brotopon, Dozic, Duraperidol (Germany), Einalon S, Eukystol, Haldol (common tradename in the US and UK), Halol, Halosten, Keselan, Linton, Peluces, Serenace and Sigaperidol.

Veterinary Use

Haloperidol is also used on many different kinds of animals for nonselective tranquilisation and diminishing behavioural arousal, in veterinary and other settings including captivity management.

What is Quetiapine?

Published on by Andrew Marshall13 Comments

Introduction

Quetiapine, sold under the brand name Seroquel among others, is an atypical antipsychotic medication used for the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. Despite being widely used as a sleep aid due its sedating effect, the benefits of such use do not appear to generally outweigh the side effects. It is taken by mouth.

Common side effects include sleepiness, constipation, weight gain, and dry mouth. Other side effects include low blood pressure with standing, seizures, a prolonged erection, high blood sugar, tardive dyskinesia, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. In older people with dementia, its use increases the risk of death. Use in the third trimester of pregnancy may result in a movement disorder in the baby for some time after birth. Quetiapine is believed to work by blocking a number of receptors including serotonin and dopamine.

Quetiapine was developed in 1985 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1997. It is available as a generic medication. In 2018, it was the 59th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 12 million prescriptions.

Brief History

AstraZeneca submitted a new drug application for a sustained-release version of quetiapine in the United States, Canada, and the European Union in the second half of 2006 for treatment of schizophrenia. AstraZeneca was to retain the exclusive right to market sustained-release quetiapine until 2017. The sustained-release quetiapine is marketed mainly as Seroquel XR. Other marketing names are Seroquel Prolong, Seroquel Depot and Seroquel XL

On 18 May 2007, AstraZeneca announced that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had approved Seroquel XR for acute treatment of schizophrenia. During its 2007 Q2 earnings conference, AstraZeneca announced plans to launch Seroquel XR in the US during August 2007. However, Seroquel XR has become available in US pharmacies only after the FDA had approved Seroquel XR for use as maintenance treatment for schizophrenia, in addition to acute treatment of the illness, on 16 November 2007. The company has not provided a reason for the delay of Seroquel XR’s launch.

Health Canada approved sale of Seroquel XR on 27 September 2007.

In early October 2008, the FDA approved Seroquel XR for the treatment of bipolar depression and bipolar mania. According to AstraZeneca, Seroquel XR is “the first medication approved by the FDA for the once-daily acute treatment of both depressive and manic episodes associated with bipolar.”

On 31 July, 2008, Handa Pharmaceuticals, based in Fremont, California, announced that its abbreviated new drug application (“ANDA”) for quetiapine fumarate extended-release tablets, the generic version of AstraZeneca’s SEROQUEL XR, has been accepted by the FDA.

On 01 December 2008, Biovail announced that the FDA had accepted the company’s ANDA to market its own version of sustained-release quetiapine. Biovail’s sustained-release tablets will compete with AstraZeneca’s Seroquel XR.

On 24 December 2008, AstraZeneca notified shareholders that the FDA had asked for additional information on the company’s application to expand the use of sustained-release quetiapine for treatment of depression.

Medical Uses

Quetiapine is primarily used to treat schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Quetiapine targets both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia

In a 2013 comparison of 15 antipsychotics in effectiveness in treating schizophrenia, quetiapine demonstrated standard effectiveness. It was 13-16% more effective than ziprasidone, chlorpromazine, and asenapine and approximately as effective as haloperidol and aripiprazole.

There is tentative evidence of the benefit of quetiapine versus placebo in schizophrenia; however, definitive conclusions are not possible due to the high rate of attrition in trials (greater than 50%) and the lack of data on economic outcomes, social functioning, or quality of life.

It is debatable whether, as a class, typical or atypical antipsychotics are more effective. Both have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates when typicals are used at low to moderate dosages. While quetiapine has lower rates of extrapyramidal side effects, there is greater sleepiness and rates of dry mouth.

A Cochrane review comparing quetiapine to other atypical antipsychotic agents tentatively concluded that it may be less efficacious than olanzapine and risperidone; produce fewer movement related side effects than paliperidone, aripiprazole, ziprasidone, risperidone and olanzapine; and produce weight gain similar to risperidone, clozapine and aripiprazole. They concluded that it produces suicide attempt, suicide; death; QTc prolongation, low blood pressure; tachycardia; sedation; gynaecomastia; galactorrhoea, menstrual irregularity and white blood cell count at a rate similar to first generation antipsychotics.

Bipolar Disorder

In those with bipolar disorder, quetiapine is used to treat depressive episodes; acute manic episodes associated with bipolar I disorder (as either monotherapy or adjunct therapy to lithium; valproate or lamotrigine); acute mixed episodes; and maintenance treatment of bipolar I disorder (as adjunct therapy to lithium or divalproex).

Major Depressive Disorder

Quetiapine is effective when used by itself and when used along with other medications in major depressive disorder (MDD). However, sedation is often an undesirable side effect.

In the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia (while not subsidised by the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme for treatment of MDD), quetiapine is licensed for use as an add-on treatment in MDD.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Quetiapine does not decrease agitation among people with Alzheimer’s. Quetiapine worsens intellectual functioning in the elderly with dementia and therefore is not recommended.

Others

The use of low doses of quetiapine for insomnia, while common, is not recommended; there is little evidence of benefit and concerns regarding adverse effects.

It is sometimes used off-label, often as an augmentation agent, to treat conditions such as Tourette syndrome, musical hallucinations and anxiety disorders.

Quetiapine and clozapine are the most widely used medications for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease psychosis due to their very low extrapyramidal side-effect liability. Owing to the risks associated with clozapine (e.g. agranulocytosis, diabetes mellitus, etc.), clinicians often attempt treatment with quetiapine first, although the evidence to support quetiapine’s use for this indication is significantly weaker than that of clozapine.

Adverse Effects

  • Very common (>10% incidence) adverse effects:
    • Dry mouth.
    • Dizziness.
    • Headache.
    • Somnolence:
      • Drowsiness; of 15 antipsychotics quetiapine causes the 5th most sedation.
      • Extended release (XR) formulations tend to produce less sedation, dose-by-dose than the immediate release formulations.
  • Common (1–10% incidence) adverse effects:
    • High blood pressure.
    • Orthostatic hypotension.
    • High pulse rate.
    • High blood cholesterol.
    • Elevated serum triglycerides.
    • Abdominal pain.
    • Constipation.
    • Increased appetite.
    • Vomiting.
    • Increased liver enzymes.
    • Backache.
    • Asthenia.
    • Insomnia.
    • Lethargy.
    • Tremor.
    • Agitation.
    • Nasal congestion.
    • Pharyngitis.
    • Fatigue.
    • Pain.
    • Dyspepsia (Indigestion).
    • Peripheral oedema.
    • Dysphagia.
    • Extrapyramidal disease:
      • Quetiapine and clozapine are noted for their relative lack of extrapyramidal side effects.
    • Weight gain:
      • SMD 0.43 kg when compared to placebo. Produces roughly as much weight gain as risperidone, less weight gain than clozapine, olanzapine and zotepine and more weight gain than ziprasidone, lurasidone, aripiprazole and asenapine.
      • As with many other atypical antipsychotics, this action is likely due to its actions at the H1 histamine receptor and 5-HT2C receptor.
  • Rare (<1% incidence) adverse effects:
    • Prolonged QT interval.
    • Sudden cardiac death.
    • Syncope.
    • Diabetic ketoacidosis.
    • Restless legs syndrome.
    • Hyponatraemia, low blood sodium.
    • Jaundice, yellowing of the eyes, skin and mucous membranes due to an impaired ability of the body to clear bilirubin, a by product of haem breakdown.
    • Pancreatitis, pancreas swelling.
    • Agranulocytosis, a potentially fatal drop in white blood cell count.
    • Leukopenia, a drop in white blood cell count, not as severe as agranulocytosis.
    • Neutropenia, a drop in neutrophils, the cell of the immune cells that defends the body against bacterial infections.
    • Eosinophilia.
    • Anaphylaxis, a potentially fatal allergic reaction.
    • Seizure.
    • Hypothyroidism, underactive thyroid gland.
    • Myocarditis, swelling of the myocardium.
    • Cardiomyopathy.
    • Hepatitis, swelling of the liver.
    • Suicidal ideation.
    • Priapism:
      • A prolonged and painful erection.
    • Stevens-Johnson syndrome:
      • A potentially fatal skin reaction.
    • Neuroleptic malignant syndrome:
      • A rare and potentially fatal complication of antipsychotic drug treatment.
      • It is characterised by the following symptoms: tremor, rigidity, hyperthermia, tachycardia, mental status changes (e.g. confusion), etc.
    • Tardive Dyskinesia:
      • A rare and often irreversible neurological condition characterised by involuntary movements of the face, tongue, lips and rest of the body.
      • Most commonly occurs after prolonged treatment with antipsychotics.
      • It is believed to be particularly uncommon with atypical antipsychotics, especially quetiapine and clozapine

Both typical and atypical antipsychotics can cause tardive dyskinesia. According to one study, rates are lower with the atypicals at 3.9% as opposed to the typicals at 5.5%. Although quetiapine and clozapine are atypical antipsychotics, switching to these atypicals is an option to minimise symptoms of tardive dyskinesia caused by other atypicals.

Weight gain can be a problem for some, with quetiapine causing more weight gain than fluphenazine, haloperidol, loxapine, molindone, olanzapine, pimozide, risperidone, thioridazine, thiothixene, trifluoperazine, and ziprasidone, but less than chlorpromazine, clozapine, perphenazine, and sertindole.

As with some other anti-psychotics, quetiapine may lower the seizure threshold, and should be taken with caution in combination with drugs such as bupropion.

Discontinuation

The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.

There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.

Pregnancy and Lactation

Placental exposure is least for quetiapine compared to other atypical antipsychotics. The evidence is insufficient to rule out any risk to the foetus but available data suggests it is unlikely to result in any major foetal malformations. It is secreted in breast milk and hence quetiapine-treated mothers are advised not to breastfeed.

Abuse Potential

In contrast to most other antipsychotic drugs, which tend to be somewhat aversive and often show problems with patient compliance with prescribed medication regimes, quetiapine is sometimes associated with drug misuse and abuse potential, for its hypnotic and sedative effects. It has a limited potential for misuse, usually only in individuals with a history of polysubstance abuse and/or mental illness, and especially in those incarcerated in prisons or secure psychiatric facilities where access to alternative intoxicants is more limited. To a significantly greater extent than other atypical antipsychotic drugs, quetiapine was found to be associated with drug-seeking behaviours, and to have standardised street prices and slang terms associated with it, either by itself or in combination with other drugs (such as “Q-ball” for the intravenous injection of quetiapine mixed with cocaine). The pharmacological basis for this distinction from other second generation antipsychotic drugs is unclear, though it has been suggested that quetiapine’s comparatively lower dopamine receptor affinity and strong antihistamine activity might mean it could be regarded as more similar to sedating antihistamines in this context. While these issues have not been regarded as sufficient cause for placing quetiapine under increased legal controls, prescribers have been urged to show caution when prescribing quetiapine to individuals with characteristics that might place them at increased risk for drug misuse.

Overdose

Most instances of acute overdosage result in only sedation, hypotension and tachycardia, but cardiac arrhythmia, coma and death have occurred in adults. Serum or plasma quetiapine concentrations are usually in the 1-10 mg/L range in overdose survivors, while postmortem blood levels of 10-25 mg/L are generally observed in fatal cases. Non-toxic levels in postmortem blood extend to around 0.8 mg/kg, but toxic levels in postmortem blood can begin at 0.35 mg/kg.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Quetiapine has the following pharmacological actions:

  • Dopamine D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5 receptor antagonist.
  • Serotonin 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, 5-HT2C, 5-HT3, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7 receptor antagonist, and 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT1E, and 5-HT1F receptor ligand.
  • α1- and α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist.
  • Histamine H1 receptor antagonist.
  • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist.

This means quetiapine is a dopamine, serotonin, and adrenergic antagonist, and a potent antihistamine with some anticholinergic properties. Quetiapine binds strongly to serotonin receptors; the drug acts as partial agonist at 5-HT1A receptors. Serial PET scans evaluating the D2 receptor occupancy of quetiapine have demonstrated that quetiapine very rapidly disassociates from the D2 receptor. Theoretically, this allows for normal physiological surges of dopamine to elicit normal effects in areas such as the nigrostriatal and tuberoinfundibular pathways, thus minimising the risk of side-effects such as pseudo-parkinsonism as well as elevations in prolactin. Some of the antagonised receptors (serotonin, norepinephrine) are actually autoreceptors whose blockade tends to increase the release of neurotransmitters.

At very low doses, quetiapine acts primarily as a histamine receptor blocker (antihistamine) and α1-adrenergic blocker. When the dose is increased, quetiapine activates the adrenergic system and binds strongly to serotonin receptors and autoreceptors. At high doses, quetiapine starts blocking significant amounts of dopamine receptors. Off-label prescriptions, e.g. for chronic insomnia, of low-dose quetiapine is not recommended due to the harmful side-effects.

When treating schizophrenia, antagonism of D2 receptor by quetiapine in the mesolimbic pathway relieves positive symptoms and antagonism of the 5HT2A receptor in the frontal cortex of the brain relieves negative symptoms. Quetiapine has fewer extrapyramidal side effects and is less likely to cause hyperprolactinemia when compared to other drugs used to treat schizophrenia, so is used as a first line treatment.

Pharmacokinetics

Peak levels of quetiapine occur 1.5 hours after a dose. The plasma protein binding of quetiapine is 83%. The major active metabolite of quetiapine is norquetiapine (N-desalkylquetiapine). Quetiapine has an elimination half-life of 6 or 7 hours. Its metabolite, norquetiapine, has a half-life of 9 to 12 hours. Quetiapine is excreted primarily via the kidneys (73%) and in faeces (20%) after hepatic metabolism, the remainder (1%) is excreted as the drug in its unmetabolised form.

Chemistry

Quetiapine is a tetracyclic compound and is closely related structurally to clozapine, olanzapine, loxapine, and other tetracyclic antipsychotics.

Synthesis

The synthesis of quetiapine begins with a dibenzothiazepinone. The lactam is first treated with phosphoryl chloride to produce a dibenzothiazepine. A nucleophilic substitution is used to introduce the sidechain.

Society and Culture

Regulatory Status

In the United States, the FDA has approved quetiapine for the treatment of schizophrenia and of acute manic episodes associated with bipolar disorder (bipolar mania) and for treatment of bipolar depression. In 2009, quetiapine XR was approved as adjunctive treatment of major depressive disorder.

Quetiapine received its initial indication from the FDA for treatment of schizophrenia in 1997. In 2004, it received its second indication for the treatment of mania-associated bipolar disorder. In 2007 and 2008, studies were conducted on quetiapine’s efficacy in treating generalized anxiety disorder and major depression.

Patent protection for the product ended in 2012; however, in a number of regions, the long-acting version remained under patent until 2017.

Lawsuits

In April 2010, the US Department of Justice fined Astra-Zeneca $520 million for the company’s aggressive marketing of Seroquel for off-label uses. According to the Department of Justice, “the company recruited doctors to serve as authors of articles that were ghostwritten by medical literature companies and about studies the doctors in question did not conduct. AstraZeneca then used those studies and articles as the basis for promotional messages about unapproved uses of Seroquel.”

Multiple lawsuits have been filed in relation to quetiapine’s side-effects, in particular, diabetes.

Approximately 10,000 lawsuits have been filed against AstraZeneca, alleging that quetiapine caused problems ranging from slurred speech and chronic insomnia to deaths.

Controversy

In 2004, a young man named Dan Markingson committed suicide in a controversial Seroquel clinical trial at the University of Minnesota while under an involuntary commitment order. A group of University of Minnesota bioethicists charged that the trial involved an alarming number of ethical violations.

Nurofen Plus Tampering Case

In August 2011, the UK’s Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) issued a class-4 drug alert following reports that some batches of Nurofen plus contained Seroquel XL tablets instead.

Following the issue of the Class-4 Drug Alert, Reckitt Benckiser (UK) Ltd received further reports of rogue blister strips in cartons of two additional batches of Nurofen Plus tablets. One of the new batches contained Seroquel XL 50 mg tablets and one contained the Pfizer product Neurontin 100 mg capsules.

Following discussions with the MHRA’s Defective Medicines Report Centre (DMRC), Reckitt Benckiser (UK) Ltd decided to recall all remaining unexpired stock of Nurofen Plus tablets in any pack size, leading to a Class-1 Drug Alert. The contamination was later traced to in-store tampering by a customer.

What is Valproate?

Published on by Andrew Marshall18 Comments

Introduction

Valproate and its valproic acid, sodium valproate, and valproate semisodium forms are medications primarily used to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder and prevent migraine headaches. They are useful for the prevention of seizures in those with absence seizures, partial seizures, and generalised seizures. They can be given intravenously or by mouth, and the tablet forms exist in both long- and short-acting formulations.

Common side effects of valproate include nausea, vomiting, sleepiness, and dry mouth. Serious side effects can include liver failure, and regular monitoring of liver function tests is therefore recommended. Other serious risks include pancreatitis and an increased suicide risk. Valproate is known to cause serious abnormalities in babies if taken during pregnancy, and as such it is not typically recommended for women of childbearing age who have migraines.

Valproate’s precise mechanism of action is unclear. Proposed mechanisms include affecting GABA levels, blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, and inhibiting histone deacetylases. Valproic acid is a branched short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) made from valeric acid.

Valproate was first made in 1881 and came into medical use in 1962. It is on the World Health Organisation’s (WHO’s) List of Essential Medicines and is available as a generic medication. It is marketed under the brand names Depakote, among others. In 2018, it was the 131st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5 million prescriptions.

Brief History

Valproic acid was first synthesized in 1882 by Beverly S. Burton as an analogue of valeric acid, found naturally in valerian. Valproic acid is a carboxylic acid, a clear liquid at room temperature. For many decades, its only use was in laboratories as a “metabolically inert” solvent for organic compounds. In 1962, the French researcher Pierre Eymard serendipitously discovered the anticonvulsant properties of valproic acid while using it as a vehicle for a number of other compounds that were being screened for anti-seizure activity. He found it prevented pentylenetetrazol-induced convulsions in laboratory rats. It was approved as an antiepileptic drug in 1967 in France and has become the most widely prescribed antiepileptic drug worldwide. Valproic acid has also been used for migraine prophylaxis and bipolar disorder.

Terminology

Valproic acid (VPA) is an organic weak acid. The conjugate base is valproate. The sodium salt of the acid is sodium valproate and a coordination complex of the two is known as valproate semisodium.

Medical Uses

It is used primarily to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder. It is also used to prevent migraine headaches.

Epilepsy

Valproate has a broad spectrum of anticonvulsant activity, although it is primarily used as a first-line treatment for tonic-clonic seizures, absence seizures and myoclonic seizures and as a second-line treatment for partial seizures and infantile spasms. It has also been successfully given intravenously to treat status epilepticus.

Mental Illness

Bipolar Disorder

Valproate products are also used to treat manic or mixed episodes of bipolar disorder.

Schizophrenia

A 2016 systematic review compared the efficacy of valproate as an add-on for people with schizophrenia.

There is limited evidence that adding valproate to antipsychotics may be effective for overall response and also for specific symptoms, especially in terms of excitement and aggression. Valproate was associated with a number of adverse events among which sedation and dizziness appeared more frequently than in the control groups.

Dopamine Dysregulation Syndrome

Based upon five case reports, valproic acid may have efficacy in controlling the symptoms of the dopamine dysregulation syndrome that arise from the treatment of Parkinson’s disease with levodopa.

Migraines

Valproate is also used to prevent migraine headaches. Because this medication can be potentially harmful to the fetus, valproate should be considered for those able to become pregnant only after the risks have been discussed.

Other

The medication has been tested in the treatment of AIDS and cancer, owing to its histone-deacetylase-inhibiting effects.

Adverse Effects

Most common adverse effects include:

  • Nausea (22%).
  • Drowsiness (19%).
  • Dizziness (12%).
  • Vomiting (12%).
  • Weakness (10%).

Serious adverse effects include:

  • Bleeding.
  • Low blood platelets.
  • Encephalopathy.
  • Suicidal behaviour and thoughts.
  • Low body temperature.

Valproic acid has a black box warning for hepatotoxicity, pancreatitis, and foetal abnormalities.

There is evidence that valproic acid may cause premature growth plate ossification in children and adolescents, resulting in decreased height. Valproic acid can also cause mydriasis, a dilation of the pupils. There is evidence that shows valproic acid may increase the chance of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in women with epilepsy or bipolar disorder. Studies have shown this risk of PCOS is higher in women with epilepsy compared to those with bipolar disorder. Weight gain is also possible.

Pregnancy

Valproate causes birth defects; exposure during pregnancy is associated with about three times as many major abnormalities as usual, mainly spina bifida with the risks being related to the strength of medication used and use of more than one drug. More rarely, with several other defects, including a “valproate syndrome”. Characteristics of this valproate syndrome include facial features that tend to evolve with age, including a triangle-shaped forehead, tall forehead with bifrontal narrowing, epicanthic folds, medial deficiency of eyebrows, flat nasal bridge, broad nasal root, anteverted nares, shallow philtrum, long upper lip and thin vermillion borders, thick lower lip and small downturned mouth. While developmental delay is usually associated with altered physical characteristics (dysmorphic features), this is not always the case.

Children of mothers taking valproate during pregnancy are at risk for lower IQs. Maternal valproate use during pregnancy increased the probability of autism in the offspring compared to mothers not taking valproate from 1.5% to 4.4%. A 2005 study found rates of autism among children exposed to sodium valproate before birth in the cohort studied were 8.9%. The normal incidence for autism in the general population is estimated at less than one percent. A 2009 study found that the 3-year-old children of pregnant women taking valproate had an IQ nine points lower than that of a well-matched control group. However, further research in older children and adults is needed.

Sodium valproate has been associated with paroxysmal tonic upgaze of childhood, also known as Ouvrier–Billson syndrome, from childhood or foetal exposure. This condition resolved after discontinuing valproate therapy.

Women who intend to become pregnant should switch to a different medication if possible, or decrease their dose of valproate. Women who become pregnant while taking valproate should be warned that it causes birth defects and cognitive impairment in the newborn, especially at high doses (although valproate is sometimes the only drug that can control seizures, and seizures in pregnancy could have worse outcomes for the foetus than exposure to valproate). Studies have shown that taking folic acid supplements can reduce the risk of congenital neural tube defects. The use of valproate for migraine or bipolar disorder during pregnancy is contraindicated in the European Union, and the medicines are not recommended for epilepsy during pregnancy unless there is no other effective treatment available.

Elderly

Valproate in elderly people with dementia caused increased sleepiness. More people stopped the medication for this reason. Additional side effects of weight loss and decreased food intake was also associated in one half of people who become sleepy.

Contraindications

Contraindications include:

  • Pre-existing acute or chronic liver dysfunction or family history of severe liver inflammation (hepatitis), particularly medicine related.
  • Known hypersensitivity to valproate or any of the ingredients used in the preparation.
  • Urea cycle disorders.
  • Hepatic porphyria.
  • Hepatotoxicity.
  • Mitochondrial disease.
  • Pancreatitis.
  • Porphyria.

Interactions

Valproate inhibits CYP2C9, glucuronyl transferase, and epoxide hydrolase and is highly protein bound and hence may interact with drugs that are substrates for any of these enzymes or are highly protein bound themselves. It may also potentiate the CNS depressant effects of alcohol. It should not be given in conjunction with other antiepileptics due to the potential for reduced clearance of other antiepileptics (including carbamazepine, lamotrigine, phenytoin and phenobarbitone) and itself. It may also interact with:

  • Aspirin: may increase valproate concentrations. May also interfere with valproate’s metabolism.
  • Benzodiazepines: may cause CNS depression and there are possible pharmacokinetic interactions.
  • Carbapenem antibiotics: reduces valproate levels, potentially leading to seizures.
  • Cimetidine: inhibits valproate’s metabolism in the liver, leading to increased valproate concentrations.
  • Erythromycin: inhibits valproate’s metabolism in the liver, leading to increased valproate concentrations.
  • Ethosuximide: may increase ethosuximide concentrations and lead to toxicity.
  • Felbamate: may increase plasma concentrations of valproate.
  • Mefloquine: may increase valproate metabolism combined with the direct epileptogenic effects of mefloquine.
  • Oral contraceptives: may reduce plasma concentrations of valproate.
  • Primidone: may accelerate metabolism of valproate, leading to a decline of serum levels and potential breakthrough seizure.
  • Rifampin: increases the clearance of valproate, leading to decreased valproate concentrations
  • Warfarin: may increase warfarin concentration and prolong bleeding time.
  • Zidovudine: may increase zidovudine serum concentration and lead to toxicity.

Overdose and Toxicity

Excessive amounts of valproic acid can result in sleepiness, tremor, stupor, respiratory depression, coma, metabolic acidosis, and death. In general, serum or plasma valproic acid concentrations are in a range of 20-100 mg/l during controlled therapy, but may reach 150-1500 mg/l following acute poisoning. Monitoring of the serum level is often accomplished using commercial immunoassay techniques, although some laboratories employ gas or liquid chromatography. In contrast to other antiepileptic drugs, at present there is little favourable evidence for salivary therapeutic drug monitoring. Salivary levels of valproic acid correlate poorly with serum levels, partly due to valproate’s weak acid property (pKa of 4.9).

In severe intoxication, hemoperfusion or hemofiltration can be an effective means of hastening elimination of the drug from the body. Supportive therapy should be given to all patients experiencing an overdose and urine output should be monitored. Supplemental L-carnitine is indicated in patients having an acute overdose and also prophylactically in high risk patients. Acetyl-L-carnitine lowers hyperammonemia less markedly than L-carnitine.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Although the mechanism of action of valproate is not fully understood, traditionally, its anticonvulsant effect has been attributed to the blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels and increased brain levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The GABAergic effect is also believed to contribute towards the anti-manic properties of valproate. In animals, sodium valproate raises cerebral and cerebellar levels of the inhibitory synaptic neurotransmitter, GABA, possibly by inhibiting GABA degradative enzymes, such as GABA transaminase, succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase and by inhibiting the re-uptake of GABA by neuronal cells.

Prevention of neurotransmitter-induced hyperexcitability of nerve cells, via Kv7.2 channel and AKAP5, may also contribute to its mechanism. Also, it has been shown to protect against a seizure-induced reduction in phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3) as a potential therapeutic mechanism.

It also has histone-deacetylase-inhibiting effects. The inhibition of histone deacetylase, by promoting more transcriptionally active chromatin structures, likely presents the epigenetic mechanism for regulation of many of the neuroprotective effects attributed to valproic acid. Intermediate molecules mediating these effects include VEGF, BDNF, and GDNF.

Endocrine Actions

Valproic acid has been found to be an antagonist of the androgen and progesterone receptors, and hence as a nonsteroidal antiandrogen and antiprogestogen, at concentrations much lower than therapeutic serum levels. In addition, the drug has been identified as a potent aromatase inhibitor, and suppresses oestrogen concentrations. These actions are likely to be involved in the reproductive endocrine disturbances seen with valproic acid treatment.

Valproic acid has been found to directly stimulate androgen biosynthesis in the gonads via inhibition of histone deacetylases and has been associated with hyperandrogenism in women and increased 4-androstenedione levels in men. High rates of polycystic ovary syndrome and menstrual disorders have also been observed in women treated with valproic acid.

Metabolism

The vast majority of valproate metabolism occurs in the liver. In adult patients taking valproate alone, 30-50% of an administered dose is excreted in urine as a glucuronide conjugate. The other major pathway in the metabolism of valproate is mitochondrial beta-oxidation, which typically accounts for over 40% of an administered dose. Typically, less than 20% of an administered dose is eliminated by other oxidative mechanisms. Less than 3% of an administered dose of valproate is excreted unchanged (i.e. as valproate) in urine.

Valproate is known to be metabolized by the Cytochrome P450 enzymes: CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, and CYP3A5. It is also known to be metabolised by the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes: UGT1A3, UGT1A4, UGT1A6, UGT1A8, UGT1A9, UGT1A10, UGT2B7, and UGT2B15.[70] Some of the known metabolites of valproate by these enzymes and uncharacterized enzymes include: 2-ene-valproic acid, 3Z-ene-valproic acid, 3E-ene-valproic acid, 4-ene-valproic acid, valproic acid β-O-glucuronide, 3-oxovalproic acid, 3-hydroxyvalproic acid, 4-hydroxyvalproic acid, 5-hydroxyvalproic acid, and valproyl-CoA, among others.

Chemistry

Valproic acid is a branched short-chain fatty acid and the 2-n-propyl derivative of valeric acid.

Society and Culture

Valproate is available as a generic medication.

Off-Label Uses

In 2012, pharmaceutical company Abbott paid $1.6 billion in fines to US federal and state governments for illegal promotion of off-label uses for Depakote, including the sedation of elderly nursing home residents.

Some studies have suggested that valproate may reopen the critical period for learning absolute pitch and possibly other skills such as language.

Formulations

Valproate exists in two main molecular variants: sodium valproate and valproic acid without sodium (often implied by simply valproate). A mixture between these two is termed semisodium valproate. It is unclear whether there is any difference in efficacy between these variants, except from the fact that about 10% more mass of sodium valproate is needed than valproic acid without sodium to compensate for the sodium itself.

Brand Names of Valproic Acid

Branded products include:

  • Absenor (Orion Corporation Finland).
  • Convulex (G.L. Pharma GmbH Austria).
  • Depakene (Abbott Laboratories in US and Canada).
  • Depakine (Sanofi Aventis France).
  • Depakine (Sanofi Synthelabo Romania).
  • Depalept (Sanofi Aventis Israel).
  • Deprakine (Sanofi Aventis Finland).
  • Encorate (Sun Pharmaceuticals India).
  • Epival (Abbott Laboratories US and Canada).
  • Epilim (Sanofi Synthelabo Australia and South Africa).
  • Stavzor (Noven Pharmaceuticals Inc.).
  • Valcote (Abbott Laboratories Argentina).
  • Valpakine (Sanofi Aventis Brazil).
  • Orfiril (Desitin Arzneimittel GmbH Norway).

Brand names of sodium valproate

  • Portugal:
    • Tablets – Diplexil-R by Bial.
  • United States:
    • Intravenous injection – Depacon by Abbott Laboratories.
    • Syrup – Depakene by Abbott Laboratories. (Note Depakene capsules are valproic acid).
    • Depakote tablets are a mixture of sodium valproate and valproic acid.
    • Tablets – Eliaxim by Bial.
  • Australia:
    • Epilim Crushable Tablets Sanofi.
    • Epilim Sugar Free Liquid Sanofi.
    • Epilim Syrup Sanofi.
    • Epilim Tablets Sanofi.
    • Sodium Valproate Sandoz Tablets Sanofi.
    • Valpro Tablets Alphapharm.
    • Valproate Winthrop Tablets Sanofi.
    • Valprease tablets Sigma.
  • New Zealand:
    • Epilim by Sanofi-Aventis.
  • UK:
    • Depakote Tablets (as in USA).
    • Tablets – Orlept by Wockhardt and Epilim by Sanofi.
    • Oral solution – Orlept Sugar Free by Wockhardt and Epilim by Sanofi.
    • Syrup – Epilim by Sanofi-Aventis.
    • Intravenous injection – Epilim Intravenous by Sanofi.
    • Extended release tablets – Epilim Chrono by Sanofi is a combination of sodium valproate and valproic acid in a 2.3:1 ratio.
    • Enteric-coated tablets – Epilim EC200 by Sanofi is a 200-mg sodium valproate enteric-coated tablet.
  • UK Only:
    • Capsules – Episenta prolonged release by Beacon.
    • Sachets – Episenta prolonged release by Beacon.
    • Intravenous solution for injection – Episenta solution for injection by Beacon.
  • Germany, Switzerland, Norway, Finland, Sweden:
    • Tablets – Orfiril by Desitin Pharmaceuticals.
    • Intravenous injection – Orfiril IV by Desitin Pharmaceuticals.
  • South Africa:
    • Syrup – Convulex by Byk Madaus.
    • Tablets – Epilim by Sanofi-synthelabo.
  • Malaysia:
    • Tablets – Epilim by Sanofi-Aventis..
  • Romania:
    • Companies are SANOFI-AVENTIS FRANCE, GEROT PHARMAZEUTIKA GMBH and DESITIN ARZNEIMITTEL GMBH.
    • Types are Syrup, Extended release mini tablets, Gastric resistant coated tablets, Gastric resistant soft capsules, Extended release capsules, Extended release tablets and Extended release coated tablets.
  • Canada:
    • Intravenous injection – Epival or Epiject by Abbott Laboratories.
    • Syrup – Depakene by Abbott Laboratories its generic formulations include Apo-Valproic and ratio-Valproic.
  • Japan:
    • Tablets – Depakene by Kyowa Hakko Kirin.
    • Extended release tablets – Depakene-R by Kyowa Hakko Kogyo and Selenica-R by Kowa.
    • Syrup – Depakene by Kyowa Hakko Kogyo.
  • Europe:
    • In much of Europe, Dépakine and Depakine Chrono (tablets) are equivalent to Epilim and Epilim Chrono above.
  • Taiwan:
    • Tablets (white round tablet) – Depakine (Chinese: 帝拔癲; pinyin: di-ba-dian) by Sanofi Winthrop Industrie (France)>
  • Iran:
    • Tablets – Epival 200 (enteric coated tablet) and Epival 500 (extended release tablet) by Iran Najo.
    • Slow release tablets – Depakine Chrono by Sanofi Winthrop Industrie (France).
  • Israel:
    • Depalept and Depalept Chrono (extended release tablets) are equivalent to Epilim and Epilim Chrono above. Manufactured and distributed by Sanofi-Aventis.
  • India, Russia and CIS countries:
    • Valparin Chrono by Torrent Pharmaceuticals India.
    • Valprol CR by Intas Pharmaceutical (India).
    • Encorate Chrono by Sun Pharmaceutical (India).
    • Serven Chrono by Leeven APL Biotech (India).

Brand Names of Valproate Semisodium

  • Brazil – Depakote by Abbott Laboratories and Torval CR by Torrent do Brasil.
  • Canada – Epival by Abbott Laboratories.
  • Mexico – Epival and Epival ER (extended release) by Abbott Laboratories.
  • United Kingdom – Depakote (for psychiatric conditions) and Epilim (for epilepsy) by Sanofi-Aventis and generics.
  • United States – Depakote and Depakote ER (extended release) by Abbott Laboratories and generics.
  • India – Valance and Valance OD by Abbott Healthcare Pvt Ltd, Divalid ER by Linux laboratories Pvt Ltd, Valex ER by Sigmund Promedica, Dicorate by Sun Pharma.
  • Germany – Ergenyl Chrono by Sanofi-Aventis and generics.
  • Chile – Valcote and Valcote ER by Abbott Laboratories.
  • France and other European countries — Depakote.
  • Peru – Divalprax by AC Farma Laboratories.
  • China – Diprate OD.

What is Ziprasidone?

Published on by Andrew Marshall12 Comments

Introduction

Ziprasidone, sold under the brand name Geodon among others, is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

It may be used by mouth and by injection into a muscle (IM). The IM form may be used for acute agitation in people with schizophrenia.

Common side effects include dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth, and twitches. Although it can also cause weight gain, the risk is much lower than for other atypical antipsychotics. How it works is not entirely clear but is believed to involve effects on serotonin and dopamine in the brain.

Ziprasidone was approved for medical use in the United States in 2001. The pills are made up of the hydrochloride salt, ziprasidone hydrochloride. The intramuscular form is the mesylate, ziprasidone mesylate trihydrate, and is provided as a lyophilised powder. In 2017, it was the 261st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than one million prescriptions.

Brief History

Ziprasidone is chemically similar to risperidone, of which it is a structural analogue. It was first synthesized in 1987 at the Pfizer central research campus in Groton, Connecticut.

Phase I trials started in 1995. In 1998 ziprasidone was approved in Sweden. After the FDA raised concerns about long QT syndrome, more clinical trials were conducted and submitted to the FDA, which approved the drug on 05 February 2001.

Medical Uses

Ziprasidone is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of schizophrenia as well as acute mania and mixed states associated with bipolar disorder. Its intramuscular injection form is approved for acute agitation in schizophrenic patients for whom treatment with just ziprasidone is appropriate.

In a 2013 study in a comparison of 15 antipsychotic drugs in effectiveness in treating schizophrenic symptoms, ziprasidone demonstrated mild-standard effectiveness. 15% more effective than lurasidone and iloperidone, approximately as effective as chlorpromazine and asenapine, and 9-13% less effective than haloperidol, quetiapine, and aripiprazole. Ziprasidone is effective in the treatment of schizophrenia, though evidence from the CATIE trials suggests it is less effective than olanzapine, and equally as effective compared to quetiapine. There are higher discontinuation rates for lower doses of ziprasidone, which are also less effective than higher doses.

Adverse Effects

Ziprasidone (and all other second generation antipsychotics (SGAs)) received a black box warning due to increased mortality in elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis.

Sleepiness and headache are very common adverse effects (>10%).

Common adverse effects (1-10%), include producing too much saliva or having dry mouth, runny nose, respiratory disorders or coughing, nausea and vomiting, stomach aches, constipation or diarrhoea, loss of appetite, weight gain (but the smallest risk for weight gain compared to other antipsychotics), rashes, fast heart beats, blood pressure falling when standing up quickly, muscle pain, weakness, twitches, dizziness, and anxiety. Extrapyramidal symptoms are also common and include tremor, dystonia (sustained or repetitive muscle contractions), akathisia (the feeling of a need to be in motion), parkinsonism, and muscle rigidity; in a 2013 meta-analysis of 15 antipsychotic drugs, ziprasidone ranked 8th for such side effects.

Ziprasidone is known to cause activation into mania in some bipolar patients.

This medication can cause birth defects, according to animal studies, although this side effect has not been confirmed in humans.

Recently, the FDA required the manufacturers of some atypical antipsychotics to include a warning about the risk of hyperglycaemia and Type II diabetes with atypical antipsychotics. Some evidence suggests that ziprasidone does not cause insulin resistance to the degree of other atypical antipsychotics, such as olanzapine. Weight gain is also less of a concern with ziprasidone compared to other atypical antipsychotics. In fact, in a trial of long term therapy with ziprasidone, overweight patients (BMI > 27) actually had a mean weight loss overall. According to the manufacturer insert, ziprasidone caused an average weight gain of 2.2 kg (4.8 lbs), which is significantly lower than other atypical antipsychotics, making this medication better for patients that are concerned about their weight. In December 2014, the FDA warned that ziprasidone could cause a potentially fatal skin reaction, Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms, although this was believed to occur only rarely.

Discontinuation

The British National Formulary recommends a gradual withdrawal when discontinuing antipsychotics to avoid acute withdrawal syndrome or rapid relapse. Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. Less commonly there may be a feeling of the world spinning, numbness, or muscle pains. Symptoms generally resolve after a short period of time.

There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in reoccurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Correspondence to Clinical Effects

Ziprasidone mostly affects the receptors of dopamine (D2), serotonin (5-HT2A, partially 5-HT1A, 5-HT2C, and 5-HT1D) and epinephrine/norepinephrine (α1) to a high degree, while of histamine (H1) – moderately. It also somewhat inhibits reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, though not dopamine.

Ziprasidone’s efficacy in treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia is believed to be mediated primarily via antagonism of the dopamine receptors, specifically D2. Blockade of the 5-HT2A receptor may also play a role in its effectiveness against positive symptoms, though the significance of this property in antipsychotic drugs is still debated among researchers. Blockade of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C and activation of 5-HT1A as well as inhibition of the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine may all contribute to its ability to alleviate negative symptoms. The relatively weak antagonistic actions of ziprasidone on the α1-adrenergic receptor likely in part explains some of its side effects, such as orthostatic hypotension. Unlike many other antipsychotics, ziprasidone has no significant affinity for the mACh receptors, and as such lacks any anticholinergic side effects. Like most other antipsychotics, ziprasidone is sedating due primarily to serotonin and dopamine blockade.

Pharmacokinetics

The systemic bioavailability of ziprasidone is 100% when administered intramuscularly and 60% when administered orally without food.

After a single dose intramuscular administration, the peak serum concentration typically occurs at about 60 minutes after the dose is administered, or earlier. Steady state plasma concentrations are achieved within one to three days. Exposure increases in a dose-related manner and following three days of intramuscular dosing, little accumulation is observed.

The bioavailability of the drug is reduced by approximately 50% if a meal is not eaten before Ziprasidone ingestion.

Ziprasidone is hepatically metabolized by aldehyde oxidase; minor metabolism occurs via cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4). Medications that induce (e.g. carbamazepine) or inhibit (e.g. ketoconazole) CYP3A4 have been shown to decrease and increase, respectively, blood levels of ziprasidone.

Its biological half-life time is 10 hours at doses of 80-120 milligrams.

Society and Culture

Lawsuit

In September 2009, the US Justice Department announced that Pfizer had been ordered to pay a historic fine of $2.3 billion as a penalty for fraudulent marketing of several drugs, including Geodon. Pfizer had illegally promoted Geodon and submitted false claims to government health care programs for uses that were not medically accepted indications. The civil settlement also resolves allegations that Pfizer paid kickbacks to health care providers to induce them to prescribe Geodon, as well as other drugs. This was the largest civil fraud settlement in history against a pharmaceutical company.

What is Cyclothymia?

Published on by Andrew Marshall8 Comments

Introduction

Cyclothymia, also known as cyclothymic disorder, is a mental and behavioural disorder that involves numerous periods of symptoms of depression and periods of symptoms of elevated mood.

These symptoms, however, are not sufficient to be a major depressive episode or a hypomanic episode. Symptoms must last for more than one year in children and two years in adults.

The cause of cyclothymia is unknown. Risk factors include a family history of bipolar disorder. Cyclothymia differs from bipolar in that major depression, mania, or hypomania have never occurred.

Treatment is generally with counselling and mood stabilisers such as lithium. It is estimated that 0.4-1% of people have cyclothymia at some point in their life. Onset is typically in late childhood to early adulthood. Males and females are affected equally often.

Brief History

In 1883, Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum identified a disorder characterised by recurring mood cycles. The disorder contained both melancholic and manic episodes that occurred in a milder form than in bipolar disorder. This condition was coined “cyclothymia” by Kahlbaum and his student Ewald Hecker. Kahlbaum developed his theory of cyclothymia through his work with people presenting with these symptoms at the Kahlbaum Sanitarium in Goerlitz, Silesia (Germany). He was recognised as a leading hypnotherapist and psychotherapist of his day. He was a progressive in the field of mental health, believing that mental illness should not carry a stigma and that people dealing with mental health issues should be treated humanely. Kalhbaum was the first to recognise that people with cyclothymia often do not seek help for the disorder due to its mild symptoms.

Cyclothymia has been conceptualised in a variety of ways, including as a subtype of bipolar disorder, a temperament, a personality trait, and a personality disorder. There is also an argument that cyclothymia should be considered a neurodevelopmental disorder. The two defining features of the disorder, according to DSM-5, are the presence of depressive and hypomanic symptoms, not meeting the threshold for a depressive or hypomanic episode. Cyclothymia is also classified as a subtype of bipolar disorder in DSM-5, but some researchers disagree with this classification and argue that it should be primarily defined as an exaggeration of mood and emotional instability. In the past, cyclothymia has been conceptualised to include other characteristics in addition to the flux between depression and hypomania, such as mood reactivity, impulsivity, and anxiety.

Symptoms

People with cyclothymia experience both depressive phases and hypomanic phases (which are less severe than a full hypomanic episode). The depressive and manic symptoms in cyclothymia last for variable amounts of time due to the unstable and reactive nature of the disorder. The depressive phases are similar to major depressive disorder and are characterised by dulled thoughts and sensations and the lack of motivation for intellectual or social activities. Most people with cyclothymia are generally fatigued and tend to sleep frequently and for long periods of time. However, other people experience insomnia.

Other symptoms of cyclothymic depression include indifference toward people or activities that used to be extremely important. Cyclothymic depression also leads to difficulty making decisions. In addition, people with this condition tend to be critical and complain easily. Suicidal thoughts are common, even in mild forms of cyclothymia. In the depressive state, people with cyclothymia also experience physical complaints including frequent headaches, tightness in the head and chest, an empty sensation in the head, weakness, weight loss, and hair loss.

The distinguishing factor between typical depression and cyclothymic depression is that in cyclothymic depression, there are instances of hypomania. People with cyclothymia can switch from the depressive state to the hypomanic state without warning to them or others. The duration and frequency of phases is unpredictable.

In the hypomanic state, people’s thoughts become faster and they become more sociable and talkative. They may engage in spending sprees, spontaneous actions, have heightened self-esteem, and greater vanity. In contrast to a regular manic state that would be associated with bipolar I, symptoms in the hypomanic phase generally occur in a less severe form.

Comorbidities

Cyclothymia commonly occurs in conjunction with other disorders. Between 20-50 percent of people with depression, anxiety, and related disorders also have cyclothymia. When people with cyclothymia seek mental health resources it tends to be for symptoms of their comorbid condition rather than for their symptoms of cyclothymia. In children and adolescents, the most common comorbidities with cyclothymia are anxiety disorders, impulse control issues, eating disorders, and ADHD. In adults, cyclothymia also tends to be comorbid with impulse control issues. Sensation-seeking behaviours occur in hypomanic states. These often include gambling and compulsive sexuality in men, or compulsive buying and binge eating in women.

In addition to sensation-related disorders, cyclothymia has also been associated with atypical depression. In one study, a connection was found between interpersonal sensitivity, mood reactivity (i.e. responding to actual or potential positive events with brighter mood), and cyclothymic mood swings, all of which are symptoms of atypical depression. Cyclothymia also tends to occur in conjunction with separation anxiety, where a person has anxiety as a result of separation from a caregiver, friend, or loved one. Other issues that tend to co-occur with cyclothymia include social anxiety, fear of rejection and a tendency toward hostility to those connected with past pain and rejection. People with cyclothymia tend to seek intense interpersonal relationships when in a hypomanic state and isolation when in a depressed state. This generally leads to short, tumultuous relationships.

Causes

The cause is unknown. Risk factors include a family history of bipolar disorder.

First-degree relatives of people with cyclothymia have major depressive disorder, bipolar I disorder, and bipolar II disorder more often than the general population. Substance-related disorders also may be at a higher risk within the family. First-degree relatives of a bipolar I individuals may have a higher risk of cyclothymic disorder than the general population.

Diagnosis

Cyclothymia is classified in DSM-5 as a subtype of bipolar disorder. The criteria are:

  • Periods of elevated mood and depressive symptoms for at least half the time during the last two years for adults and one year for children and teenagers.
  • Periods of stable moods last only two months at most.
  • Symptoms create significant problems in one or more areas of life.
  • Symptoms do not meet the criteria for bipolar disorder, major depression, or another mental disorder.
  • Symptoms are not caused by substance use or a medical condition.

The DSM-5 criteria for cyclothymia are restrictive according to some researchers. This affects the diagnosis of cyclothymia because fewer people get diagnosed than potentially could. This means that a person who has some symptoms of the disorder might not be able to get treatment because they do not meet all of the necessary criteria described in DSM-5. Furthermore, it also leads to more attention being placed on depression and other bipolar-spectrum disorders because if a person does not meet all the criteria for cyclothymia they are often given a depression or bipolar spectrum diagnosis. Improper diagnosis may lead some people with cyclothymia to be treated for a comorbid disorder rather than having their cyclothymic tendencies addressed.

Cyclothymia is often not recognised by the affected individual or medical professionals due to its ostensibly mild symptoms. In addition, it is difficult to identify and classify. Due to disagreement and misconceptions among health and mental health professionals, cyclothymia is often diagnosed as “bipolar not otherwise specified”. Cyclothymia is also often confused with borderline personality disorder due to their similar symptoms, especially in older adolescents and young adults.

Most people with the disorder present in a depressive state, not realising that their hypomanic states are abnormal. Mild manic episodes tend to be interpreted as part of the person’s personality or simply a heightened mood. In addition, the disorder often manifests during childhood or adolescence, making it even more difficult for the person to distinguish between symptoms of the disorder and their personality. For example, people may think that they just suffer from mood swings and not realise that these are a result of a psychiatric condition.

Management

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is considered potentially effective for people diagnosed with cyclothymia.

Medication can be used in addition to behavioural approaches. However, mood stabilisers should be used before antidepressants, and if antidepressants are used they should be used with caution. Antidepressants are a concern due to the possibility of inducing hypomanic switches or rapid cycling.

Epidemiology

Cyclothymia, known today as cyclothymic disorder, tends to be underdiagnosed due to its low intensity. The exact rates for cyclothymia have not been widely studied. Some studies estimate that between 5 and 8% are affected at some point in their life whereas other studies suggest a rate ranging from 0.4 to 2.5%.

Males appear to be affected equally often, though women are more likely to receive treatment. Cyclothymia is diagnosed in around fifty percent of people with depression who are evaluated in psychiatric outpatient settings.

Etymology

Cyclothymia is derived from the Greek word κυκλοθυμία (from κῦκλος kyklos, “circle” and θυμός thymos, “mood, emotion”). Therefore, it means “to cycle or circle between moods or emotions”.

Research

Whether subtypes of bipolar disorder, such as cyclothymia, truly represent separate disorders or are part of a unique bipolar spectrum is debated in research. Cyclothymia is typically not described in research studies or diagnosed in clinical settings, making it less recognisable and less understood by professionals. This absence of cyclothymia in research and clinical settings suggests that cyclothymia is either being diagnosed as another mood disorder or as a non-affective psychiatric disorder or not coming to scientific or clinical attention due to a lack of diagnostic clarity or because the nature of cyclothymia is still highly contested. Additionally, the current diagnostic criterion for cyclothymia emphasizes that symptoms are persistent, which suggests that they are enduring traits rather than a psychological state, thus, it has been argued that it should be diagnosed as a personality disorder. Since the symptoms tend to overlap with personality disorders, the validity and distinction between these two diagnostic categories has been debated.

Lastly, the tendency of cyclothymia to be comorbid with other mental disorders makes diagnosis difficult. These issues prevent consensus on the definition of cyclothymia and its relationship with other mental disorders among researchers and clinicians. This lack of consensus on an operational definition and symptom presentation is especially pronounced with children and adolescents because the diagnostic criteria have not been adequately adapted to take into account their developmental level.

Society and Culture

Actor Stephen Fry has spoken about his experience with cyclothymia, which was depicted in the documentary Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive.

Singer Charlene Soraia had cyclothymia and wrote a song about her experiences with the disorder.